Make sure other resources are signed too

Add code signature
Only release
2026-10-11 00:15:33 +02:00 · 2026-03-16 19:16:00 +01:00 · 2026-03-16 19:06:23 +01:00 · 2026-03-16 18:49:23 +01:00 · 2026-03-16 18:46:16 +01:00 · 2026-03-16 18:37:22 +01:00
120 changed files with 1223 additions and 7174 deletions
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-#!/bin/sh
-
-set -eu
-
-ARCH="$1"
-SCRATCH_PATH=".build/$ARCH"
-OUTPUT_PATH=".build/prebuilt/$ARCH"
-
-swift build \
-  --build-system swiftbuild \
-  --scratch-path "$SCRATCH_PATH" \
-  --arch "$ARCH" \
-  --configuration release \
-  --product tart
-
-BIN_PATH=$(swift build \
-  --build-system swiftbuild \
-  --scratch-path "$SCRATCH_PATH" \
-  --arch "$ARCH" \
-  --configuration release \
-  --show-bin-path)
-
-mkdir -p "$OUTPUT_PATH"
-cp "$BIN_PATH/tart" "$OUTPUT_PATH/tart"
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@

 set -e

-export VERSION="${VERSION:-0}"
+export VERSION="${CIRRUS_TAG:-0}"

 mkdir -p .ci/pkg/
 cp .build/arm64-apple-macosx/release/tart .ci/pkg/tart
@@ -1,11 +1,7 @@
 #!/bin/sh

-set -e
-
-: "${VERSION:?VERSION must be set}"
-
 TMPFILE=$(mktemp)
-perl -pe 's/\$\{VERSION\}/$ENV{VERSION}/g' Sources/tart/CI/CI.swift > "$TMPFILE"
-mv "$TMPFILE" Sources/tart/CI/CI.swift
+envsubst < Sources/tart/CI/CI.swift > $TMPFILE
+mv $TMPFILE Sources/tart/CI/CI.swift

-/usr/libexec/PlistBuddy -c "Add :CFBundleShortVersionString string ${VERSION}" Resources/Info.plist
+/usr/libexec/PlistBuddy -c "Add :CFBundleShortVersionString string ${CIRRUS_TAG}" Resources/Info.plist
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-#!/bin/sh
-
-set -eu
-
-APP_PATH="dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app"
-
-if [ "${TART_RELEASE_SNAPSHOT:-false}" = "true" ]; then
-  codesign \
-    --force \
-    --deep \
-    --sign - \
-    --entitlements Resources/tart-dev.entitlements \
-    "$APP_PATH"
-else
-  codesign \
-    --force \
-    --verbose \
-    --sign "Developer ID Application: Cirrus Labs, Inc. (9M2P8L4D89)" \
-    --timestamp \
-    --options runtime \
-    --keychain "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain" \
-    --entitlements Resources/tart-prod.entitlements \
-    "$APP_PATH"
-fi
-
-codesign --verify --strict --verbose=2 "$APP_PATH"
-"$APP_PATH/Contents/MacOS/tart" --version
-
-if [ "${TART_RELEASE_SNAPSHOT:-false}" != "true" ]; then
-  NOTARIZATION_ARCHIVE="$RUNNER_TEMP/tart-notarization.zip"
-
-  ditto -c -k --keepParent "$APP_PATH" "$NOTARIZATION_ARCHIVE"
-  xcrun notarytool submit "$NOTARIZATION_ARCHIVE" \
-    --keychain-profile "notarytool" \
-    --keychain "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain" \
-    --wait \
-    --timeout 20m
-  xcrun stapler staple "$APP_PATH"
-  xcrun stapler validate "$APP_PATH"
-  spctl --assess --type execute --verbose=4 "$APP_PATH"
-fi
@@ -1,78 +1,84 @@
 use_compute_credits: true

 task:
-  name: Test
-  alias: test
-  persistent_worker:
-    labels:
-      name: dev-mini
-    resources:
-      tart-vms: 1
-  build_script:
-    - swift build
-  test_script:
-    # Add /usr/sbin to PATH, otherwise testDiskutilInfo() fails to locate "diskutil"
-    - export PATH=$PATH:/usr/sbin
-    - swift test
-  integration_test_script:
-    - codesign --sign - --entitlements Resources/tart-dev.entitlements --force .build/debug/tart
-    - export PATH=$(pwd)/.build/arm64-apple-macosx/debug:$PATH
-    # Run integration tests
-    - cd integration-tests
-    - python3 -m venv --symlinks venv
-    - source venv/bin/activate
-    - pip install -r requirements.txt
-    - pytest --verbose --junit-xml=pytest-junit.xml
-    - go test -v ./...
-  pytest_junit_result_artifacts:
-    path: "integration-tests/pytest-junit.xml"
-    format: junit
-
-task:
-  name: Markdown Lint
-  only_if: $CIRRUS_BRANCH != 'gh-pages' && changesInclude('**.md')
-  container:
-    image: node:latest
-  install_script: npm install -g markdownlint-cli
-  lint_script: markdownlint --config=docs/.markdownlint.yml docs/
-
-task:
-  name: Lint
-  alias: lint
+  only_if: $CIRRUS_TAG == '' && ($CIRRUS_USER_PERMISSION == 'write' || $CIRRUS_USER_PERMISSION == 'admin')
+  name: Release (Dry Run)
  macos_instance:
    image: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-runner:tahoe
-  lint_script:
-    - swift package plugin --allow-writing-to-package-directory swiftformat --cache ignore --lint --report swiftformat.json .
+  env:
+    MACOS_CERTIFICATE: ENCRYPTED[552b9d275d1c2bdbc1bff778b104a8f9a53cbd0d59344d4b7f6d0ca3c811a5cefb97bef9ba0ef31c219cb07bdacdd2c2]
+    AC_PASSWORD: ENCRYPTED[4a761023e7e06fe2eb350c8b6e8e7ca961af193cb9ba47605f25f1d353abc3142606f412e405be48fd897a78787ea8c2]
+    GITHUB_TOKEN: ENCRYPTED[!98ace8259c6024da912c14d5a3c5c6aac186890a8d4819fad78f3e0c41a4e0cd3a2537dd6e91493952fb056fa434be7c!]
+    GORELEASER_KEY: ENCRYPTED[!9b80b6ef684ceaf40edd4c7af93014ee156c8aba7e6e5795f41c482729887b5c31f36b651491d790f1f668670888d9fd!]
+  setup_script:
+    - cd $HOME
+    - echo $MACOS_CERTIFICATE | base64 --decode > certificate.p12
+    - security create-keychain -p password101 build.keychain
+    - security default-keychain -s build.keychain
+    - security unlock-keychain -p password101 build.keychain
+    - security import certificate.p12 -k build.keychain -P password101 -T /usr/bin/codesign -T /usr/bin/pkgbuild
+    - security set-key-partition-list -S apple-tool:,apple:,codesign: -s -k password101 build.keychain
+    - xcrun notarytool store-credentials "notarytool" --apple-id "hello@cirruslabs.org" --team-id "9M2P8L4D89" --password $AC_PASSWORD
+  install_script:
+    - brew install go
+    - brew install mitchellh/gon/gon
+    - brew install --cask goreleaser/tap/goreleaser-pro
+  info_script:
+    - security find-identity -v
+    - xcodebuild -version
+    - swift -version
+  goreleaser_script: goreleaser release --skip=publish --snapshot --clean
  always:
-    swiftformat_report_artifacts:
-      path: swiftformat.json
-      format: swiftformat
+    dist_artifacts:
+      path: "dist/*"

 task:
-  only_if: $CIRRUS_TAG == ''
-  env:
-    matrix:
-      BUILD_ARCH: arm64
-      BUILD_ARCH: x86_64
-  name: Build ($BUILD_ARCH)
-  alias: build
+  name: Release
+  only_if: $CIRRUS_TAG != ''
+  depends_on:
+    - lint
+    - test
+    - build
  macos_instance:
    image: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-runner:tahoe
-  build_script: swift build --arch $BUILD_ARCH --product tart
-  sign_script: codesign --sign - --entitlements Resources/tart-dev.entitlements --force .build/$BUILD_ARCH-apple-macosx/debug/tart
-  binary_artifacts:
-    path: .build/$BUILD_ARCH-apple-macosx/debug/tart
-
-task:
-  name: Deploy Documentation
-  only_if: $CIRRUS_BRANCH == 'main'
-  container:
-    image: ghcr.io/squidfunk/mkdocs-material:latest
-    registry_config: ENCRYPTED[!cf1a0f25325aa75bad3ce6ebc890bc53eb0044c02efa70d8cefb83ba9766275a994b4831706c52630a0692b2fa9cfb9e!]
  env:
-    DEPLOY_TOKEN: ENCRYPTED[!45ed45666558902ed1c2400add734ec063103bec31841847e8c8764802fca229bfa6d85c690e16ad159e047574b48793!]
-  deploy_script:
-    - git config --global user.name "Cirrus CI"
-    - git config --global user.name "hello@cirruslabs.org"
-    - git remote set-url origin https://$DEPLOY_TOKEN@github.com/cirruslabs/tart/
-    - mkdocs --verbose gh-deploy --force --remote-branch gh-pages
+    MACOS_CERTIFICATE: ENCRYPTED[552b9d275d1c2bdbc1bff778b104a8f9a53cbd0d59344d4b7f6d0ca3c811a5cefb97bef9ba0ef31c219cb07bdacdd2c2]
+    AC_PASSWORD: ENCRYPTED[4a761023e7e06fe2eb350c8b6e8e7ca961af193cb9ba47605f25f1d353abc3142606f412e405be48fd897a78787ea8c2]
+    GITHUB_TOKEN: ENCRYPTED[!98ace8259c6024da912c14d5a3c5c6aac186890a8d4819fad78f3e0c41a4e0cd3a2537dd6e91493952fb056fa434be7c!]
+    GORELEASER_KEY: ENCRYPTED[!9b80b6ef684ceaf40edd4c7af93014ee156c8aba7e6e5795f41c482729887b5c31f36b651491d790f1f668670888d9fd!]
+    SENTRY_ORG: cirrus-labs
+    SENTRY_PROJECT: persistent-workers
+    SENTRY_AUTH_TOKEN: ENCRYPTED[!9eaf2875d51b113e2f68598441ff8e6b2e53242e48fcb93633bd75a373fbe2e7caa900d837cc92f0b142b65579731644!]
+  setup_script:
+    - cd $HOME
+    - echo $MACOS_CERTIFICATE | base64 --decode > certificate.p12
+    - security create-keychain -p password101 build.keychain
+    - security default-keychain -s build.keychain
+    - security unlock-keychain -p password101 build.keychain
+    - security import certificate.p12 -k build.keychain -P password101 -T /usr/bin/codesign -T /usr/bin/pkgbuild
+    - security set-key-partition-list -S apple-tool:,apple:,codesign: -s -k password101 build.keychain
+    - xcrun notarytool store-credentials "notarytool" --apple-id "hello@cirruslabs.org" --team-id "9M2P8L4D89" --password $AC_PASSWORD
+  install_script:
+    - brew install go getsentry/tools/sentry-cli
+    - brew install mitchellh/gon/gon
+    - brew install --cask goreleaser/tap/goreleaser-pro
+  info_script:
+    - security find-identity -v
+    - xcodebuild -version
+    - swift -version
+  release_script: goreleaser
+  upload_sentry_debug_files_script:
+    - cd .build/arm64-apple-macosx/release/
+    # Generate and upload symbols
+    - dsymutil tart
+    - sentry-cli debug-files upload tart.dSYM/
+    - SENTRY_PROJECT=tart sentry-cli debug-files upload tart.dSYM/
+    # Bundle and upload sources
+    - sentry-cli debug-files bundle-sources tart.dSYM
+    - sentry-cli debug-files upload tart.src.zip
+    - SENTRY_PROJECT=tart sentry-cli debug-files upload tart.src.zip
+  create_sentry_release_script:
+    - export SENTRY_RELEASE="tart@$CIRRUS_TAG"
+    - sentry-cli releases new $SENTRY_RELEASE
+    - sentry-cli releases set-commits $SENTRY_RELEASE --auto
+    - sentry-cli releases finalize $SENTRY_RELEASE
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ permissions:
 jobs:
  build_cached:
    name: Build tart (cached)
-    runs-on: xcode-27
+    runs-on: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-runner:tahoe
    timeout-minutes: 30
    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@fbc6f3992d24b796d5a048ff273f7fcc4a7b6c09 # v5.1.0
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v5
      - name: Build
        run: |
          export COMPILATION_CACHE_ENABLE_CACHING=YES
@@ -29,9 +29,9 @@ jobs:

  build_no_cache:
    name: Build tart (no cache)
-    runs-on: xcode-27
+    runs-on: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-runner:tahoe
    timeout-minutes: 30
    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@fbc6f3992d24b796d5a048ff273f7fcc4a7b6c09 # v5.1.0
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v5
      - name: Build
        run: swift build --build-system swiftbuild --product tart
@@ -1,37 +0,0 @@
-name: CI
-
-on:
-  merge_group:
-  pull_request:
-  push:
-    branches:
-      - main
-  workflow_dispatch:
-
-permissions:
-  contents: read
-
-jobs:
-  test:
-    name: Test
-    runs-on: xcode-27
-    timeout-minutes: 60
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@d23441a48e516b6c34aea4fa41551a30e30af803 # v6.1.0
-      - uses: actions/setup-go@924ae3a1cded613372ab5595356fb5720e22ba16 # v6.5.0
-        with:
-          go-version-file: integration-tests/go.mod
-          cache-dependency-path: integration-tests/go.sum
-      - name: Build
-        run: swift build --build-system swiftbuild
-      - name: Run unit tests
-        run: |
-          export PATH="$PATH:/usr/sbin"
-          swift test --build-system swiftbuild
-      # The Python suite boots Tart VMs, but hosted ARM macOS runners do not support nested virtualization.
-      - name: Run OpenTelemetry integration tests
-        run: |
-          bin_path="$(swift build --build-system swiftbuild --show-bin-path)"
-          codesign --sign - --entitlements Resources/tart-dev.entitlements --force "$bin_path/tart"
-          cd integration-tests
-          PATH="$bin_path:$PATH" go test -v ./...
@@ -1,111 +0,0 @@
-name: Release
-
-on:
-  push:
-    tags:
-      - "*"
-  workflow_dispatch:
-
-permissions:
-  contents: read
-
-jobs:
-  release:
-    if: github.event_name == 'push' && github.repository == 'openai/tart'
-    name: Release
-    runs-on: xcode-27
-    environment: publish
-    timeout-minutes: 90
-    permissions:
-      contents: read
-    env:
-      VERSION: ${{ github.ref_name }}
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@df4cb1c069e1874edd31b4311f1884172cec0e10 # v6
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 0
-          persist-credentials: false
-      - name: Import signing certificate
-        env:
-          AC_PASSWORD: ${{ secrets.AC_PASSWORD }}
-          KEYCHAIN_PASSWORD: temporary-password
-          MACOS_CERTIFICATE: ${{ secrets.MACOS_CERTIFICATE }}
-          P12_PASSWORD: password101
-        run: |
-          echo "$MACOS_CERTIFICATE" | base64 --decode > "$RUNNER_TEMP/certificate.p12"
-          security create-keychain -p "$KEYCHAIN_PASSWORD" "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          security set-keychain-settings -lut 21600 "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          security default-keychain -s "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          security unlock-keychain -p "$KEYCHAIN_PASSWORD" "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          security import "$RUNNER_TEMP/certificate.p12" \
-            -k "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain" \
-            -P "$P12_PASSWORD" \
-            -T /usr/bin/codesign \
-            -T /usr/bin/pkgbuild
-          security set-key-partition-list \
-            -S apple-tool:,apple:,codesign: \
-            -s \
-            -k "$KEYCHAIN_PASSWORD" \
-            "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          security list-keychain -d user -s "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-          xcrun notarytool store-credentials "notarytool" \
-            --apple-id "hello@cirruslabs.org" \
-            --team-id "9M2P8L4D89" \
-            --password "$AC_PASSWORD" \
-            --keychain "$RUNNER_TEMP/build.keychain"
-      - name: Create release app token for this repo
-        id: app-token
-        uses: actions/create-github-app-token@1b10c78c7865c340bc4f6099eb2f838309f1e8c3 # v3.1.1
-        with:
-          app-id: ${{ secrets.RELEASE_APP_ID }}
-          private-key: ${{ secrets.RELEASE_APP_PRIVATE_KEY }}
-          permission-contents: write
-      - name: Create release app token for homebrew-tools
-        id: tap-token
-        uses: actions/create-github-app-token@1b10c78c7865c340bc4f6099eb2f838309f1e8c3 # v3.1.1
-        with:
-          app-id: ${{ secrets.RELEASE_APP_ID }}
-          private-key: ${{ secrets.RELEASE_APP_PRIVATE_KEY }}
-          owner: openai
-          repositories: homebrew-tools
-          permission-contents: write
-          permission-pull-requests: write
-      - name: Release
-        uses: goreleaser/goreleaser-action@f06c13b6b1a9625abc9e6e439d9c05a8f2190e94 # v7
-        with:
-          distribution: goreleaser-pro
-          version: "~> v2"
-          args: release --clean
-        env:
-          GORELEASER_KEY: ${{ secrets.GORELEASER_KEY }}
-          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ steps.app-token.outputs.token }}
-          HOMEBREW_TAP_GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ steps.tap-token.outputs.token }}
-
-  snapshot:
-    if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch'
-    name: Release (Dry Run)
-    runs-on: xcode-27
-    timeout-minutes: 90
-    permissions:
-      contents: read
-    env:
-      TART_RELEASE_SNAPSHOT: "true"
-      VERSION: snapshot
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@df4cb1c069e1874edd31b4311f1884172cec0e10 # v6
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 0
-          persist-credentials: false
-      - name: Build snapshot
-        uses: goreleaser/goreleaser-action@f06c13b6b1a9625abc9e6e439d9c05a8f2190e94 # v7
-        with:
-          distribution: goreleaser-pro
-          version: "~> v2"
-          args: release --skip=publish --snapshot --clean
-      - name: Upload snapshot artifacts
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@043fb46d1a93c77aae656e7c1c64a875d1fc6a0a # v7
-        with:
-          name: tart-snapshot
-          path: dist/*
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ project_name: tart
 before:
  hooks:
    - .ci/set-version.sh
-    - sh .ci/build-release.sh arm64
-    - sh .ci/build-release.sh x86_64
+    - swift build --arch arm64 --configuration release --product tart
+    - swift build --arch x86_64 --configuration release --product tart

 builds:
  - id: tart
@@ -19,33 +19,34 @@ builds:
      - amd64
    binary: tart.app/Contents/MacOS/tart
    prebuilt:
-      path: '.build/prebuilt/{{- if eq .Arch "arm64" }}arm64{{- else }}x86_64{{ end }}/tart'
+      path: '.build/{{- if eq .Arch "arm64" }}arm64{{- else }}x86_64{{ end }}-apple-macosx/release/tart'

 universal_binaries:
  - name_template: tart.app/Contents/MacOS/tart
    replace: true
    hooks:
-      post:
+      pre:
        - mkdir -p dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources
-        - cp Resources/embedded.provisionprofile dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/
-        - cp Resources/Info.plist dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/
-        - cp "Resources/actool/UPW Tart.icns" "Resources/actool/Assets.car" dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources/
-        - cmd: .ci/sign-release.sh
-          output: true
+        - cp Resources/embedded.provisionprofile dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/embedded.provisionprofile
+        - cp Resources/Info.plist dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Info.plist
+        - cp Resources/AppIcon.png dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources/AppIcon.png
+      post:
+        - gon gon.hcl

 archives:
  - name_template: "{{ .ProjectName }}"
    files:
-      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Info.plist
-        dst: tart.app/Contents/Info.plist
-      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/embedded.provisionprofile
-        dst: tart.app/Contents/embedded.provisionprofile
-      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources/UPW Tart.icns
-        dst: tart.app/Contents/Resources/UPW Tart.icns
-      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources/Assets.car
-        dst: tart.app/Contents/Resources/Assets.car
      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/_CodeSignature/CodeResources
        dst: tart.app/Contents/_CodeSignature/CodeResources
+      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/embedded.provisionprofile
+        dst: tart.app/Contents
+        strip_parent: true
+      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Info.plist
+        dst: tart.app/Contents
+        strip_parent: true
+      - src: dist/tart_darwin_all/tart.app/Contents/Resources/AppIcon.png
+        dst: tart.app/Contents/Resources
+        strip_parent: true
      - LICENSE

 release:
@@ -53,14 +54,9 @@ release:

 brews:
  - name: tart
-    directory: Formula
    repository:
-      owner: openai
-      name: homebrew-tools
-      token: "{{ .Env.HOMEBREW_TAP_GITHUB_TOKEN }}"
-      branch: "tart-{{ .Version }}"
-      pull_request:
-        enabled: true
+      owner: cirruslabs
+      name: homebrew-cli
    caveats: |
      Tart has been installed. You might want to reduce the default DHCP lease time
      from 86,400 to 600 seconds to avoid DHCP shortage when running lots of VMs daily:
@@ -68,19 +64,15 @@ brews:
        sudo defaults write /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration/com.apple.InternetSharing.default.plist bootpd -dict DHCPLeaseTimeSecs -int 600

      See https://tart.run/faq/#changing-the-default-dhcp-lease-time for more details.
-    homepage: https://github.com/openai/tart
-    license: FSL-1.1-ALv2
+    homepage: https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart
+    license: "Fair Source"
    description: Run macOS and Linux VMs on Apple Hardware
    skip_upload: auto
    dependencies:
-      - "openai/tools/softnet"
+      - "cirruslabs/cli/softnet"
    install: |
      libexec.install Dir["*"]
      bin.write_exec_script "#{libexec}/tart.app/Contents/MacOS/tart"
+      generate_completions_from_executable(libexec/"tart.app/Contents/MacOS/tart", "--generate-completion-script")
    custom_block: |
-      on_macos do
-        depends_on :macos => :ventura
-      end
-      def post_install
-        generate_completions_from_executable(libexec/"tart.app/Contents/MacOS/tart", "--generate-completion-script")
-      end
+      depends_on :macos => :ventura
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ Table of Contents
 ```
 ## How to Create an Issue/Enhancement

-1. Go to the [Issue page](https://github.com/openai/tart/issues) of the repository
+1. Go to the [Issue page](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/issues) of the repository
 2. Click on the "New Issue" button
 3. Provide a descriptive title and detailed description of the issue or enhancement you're suggesting
 4. Submit the issue
@@ -1,105 +1,45 @@
-# Functional Source License, Version 1.1, ALv2 Future License
+Fair Source License, version 0.9

-## Abbreviation
+Copyright (C) 2023 Cirrus Labs, Inc.

-FSL-1.1-ALv2
+Licensor: Cirrus Labs, Inc.

-## Notice
+Software: Tart

-Copyright 2022-2026 OpenAI
+Use Limitation: 100 users. User is defined as a single core of a central processing unit (CPU) used by the product.
+The Use Limitation does not apply to CPUs installed in devices used by a single individual.

-## Terms and Conditions
+License Grant. Licensor hereby grants to each recipient of the
+Software ("you") a non-exclusive, non-transferable, royalty-free and
+fully-paid-up license, under all of the Licensor's copyright and
+patent rights, to use, copy, distribute, prepare derivative works of,
+publicly perform and display the Software, subject to the Use
+Limitation and the conditions set forth below.

-### Licensor ("We")
+Use Limitation. The license granted above allows use by up to the
+number of users per entity set forth above (the "Use Limitation"). For
+determining the number of users, "you" includes all affiliates,
+meaning legal entities controlling, controlled by, or under common
+control with you. If you exceed the Use Limitation, your use is
+subject to payment of Licensor's then-current list price for licenses.

-The party offering the Software under these Terms and Conditions.
+Conditions. Redistribution in source code or other forms must include
+a copy of this license document to be provided in a reasonable
+manner. Any redistribution of the Software is only allowed subject to
+this license.

-### The Software
+Trademarks. This license does not grant you any right in the
+trademarks, service marks, brand names or logos of Licensor.

-The "Software" is each version of the software that we make available under
-these Terms and Conditions, as indicated by our inclusion of these Terms and
-Conditions with the Software.
+DISCLAIMER. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OR
+CONDITION, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES
+OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. LICENSORS HEREBY DISCLAIM ALL LIABILITY, WHETHER IN
+AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE.

-### License Grant
-
-Subject to your compliance with this License Grant and the Patents,
-Redistribution and Trademark clauses below, we hereby grant you the right to
-use, copy, modify, create derivative works, publicly perform, publicly display
-and redistribute the Software for any Permitted Purpose identified below.
-
-### Permitted Purpose
-
-A Permitted Purpose is any purpose other than a Competing Use. A Competing Use
-means making the Software available to others in a commercial product or
-service that:
-
-1. substitutes for the Software;
-
-2. substitutes for any other product or service we offer using the Software
-   that exists as of the date we make the Software available; or
-
-3. offers the same or substantially similar functionality as the Software.
-
-Permitted Purposes specifically include using the Software:
-
-1. for your internal use and access;
-
-2. for non-commercial education;
-
-3. for non-commercial research; and
-
-4. in connection with professional services that you provide to a licensee
-   using the Software in accordance with these Terms and Conditions.
-
-### Patents
-
-To the extent your use for a Permitted Purpose would necessarily infringe our
-patents, the license grant above includes a license under our patents. If you
-make a claim against any party that the Software infringes or contributes to
-the infringement of any patent, then your patent license to the Software ends
-immediately.
-
-### Redistribution
-
-The Terms and Conditions apply to all copies, modifications and derivatives of
-the Software.
-
-If you redistribute any copies, modifications or derivatives of the Software,
-you must include a copy of or a link to these Terms and Conditions and not
-remove any copyright notices provided in or with the Software.
-
-### Disclaimer
-
-THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND WITHOUT WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
-IMPLIED, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION WARRANTIES OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
-PURPOSE, MERCHANTABILITY, TITLE OR NON-INFRINGEMENT.
-
-IN NO EVENT WILL WE HAVE ANY LIABILITY TO YOU ARISING OUT OF OR RELATED TO THE
-SOFTWARE, INCLUDING INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
-EVEN IF WE HAVE BEEN INFORMED OF THEIR POSSIBILITY IN ADVANCE.
-
-### Trademarks
-
-Except for displaying the License Details and identifying us as the origin of
-the Software, you have no right under these Terms and Conditions to use our
-trademarks, trade names, service marks or product names.
-
-## Grant of Future License
-
-We hereby irrevocably grant you an additional license to use the Software under
-the Apache License, Version 2.0 that is effective on the second anniversary of
-the date we make the Software available. On or after that date, you may use the
-Software under the Apache License, Version 2.0, in which case the following
-will apply:
-
-Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); you may not use
-this file except in compliance with the License.
-
-You may obtain a copy of the License at
-
-http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-
-Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software distributed
-under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR
-CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the License for the
-specific language governing permissions and limitations under the License.
+Termination. If you violate the terms of this license, your rights
+will terminate automatically and will not be reinstated without the
+prior written consent of Licensor. Any such termination will not
+affect the right of others who may have received copies of the
+Software from you.
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/TartSocial.png"/>
+<img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/TartSocial.png"/>

 *Tart* is a virtualization toolset to build, run and manage macOS and Linux virtual machines (VMs) on Apple Silicon.
 Built by CI engineers for your automation needs. Here are some highlights of Tart:
@@ -8,52 +8,67 @@ Built by CI engineers for your automation needs. Here are some highlights of Tar
 * Use Tart Packer Plugin to automate VM creation.
 * Easily integrates with any CI system.

+Tart powers [Cirrus Runners](https://cirrus-runners.app/)
+service — a drop-in replacement for the standard GitHub-hosted runners, offering 2-3 times better performance for a fraction of the price.
+
+<p align="center">
+  <a href="https://cirrus-runners.app/?utm_source=github&utm_medium=referral" target=_blank>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/CirrusRunnersForGHA.png" height="65"/>
+  </a>
+</p>
+
 Many companies are using Tart in their internal setups. Here are just a few of them:

 <p align="center">
  <a href="https://atlassian.com/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Atlassian.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Atlassian.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://www.figma.com/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Figma.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Figma.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://mullvad.net/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Mullvad.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Mullvad.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://krisp.ai/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Krisp.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Krisp.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://testingbot.com/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/TestingBot.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/TestingBot.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://symflower.com/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Symflower.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Symflower.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://transloadit.com/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Transloadit.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Transloadit.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://cirrus-ci.org/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/CirrusCI.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/CirrusCI.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://www.pitsdatarecovery.net/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/PITSGlobalDataRecoveryServices.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/PITSGlobalDataRecoveryServices.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
  <a href="https://expo.dev/" target=_blank>
-    <img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Expo.png" height="65"/>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Expo.png" height="65"/>
  </a>
 </p>

-**Note:** If your company or project is using Tart please consider [sharing with the community](https://github.com/openai/tart/discussions/857).
+**Note:** If your company or project is using Tart please consider [sharing with the community](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/discussions/857).
+
+<p align="center">
+  <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/marketplace/pp/prodview-qczco34wlkdws?utm_source=github&utm_medium=referral" target=_blank>
+    <img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/AWSMarkeplaceLogo.png" height="90"/>
+  </a>
+</p>

 ## Usage

 Try running a Tart VM on your Apple Silicon device running macOS 13.0 (Ventura) or later (will download a 25 GB image):

 ```bash
-brew install openai/tools/tart
+brew install cirruslabs/cli/tart
 tart clone ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-tahoe-base:latest tahoe-base
 tart run tahoe-base
 ```

-Please check the [official documentation](https://tart.run) for more information and/or feel free to use [discussions](https://github.com/openai/tart/discussions)
+Please check the [official documentation](https://tart.run) for more information and/or feel free to use [discussions](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/discussions)
 for remaining questions.
@@ -10,14 +10,12 @@
 	<string>com.github.cirruslabs.tart</string>
 	<key>CFBundleExecutable</key>
 	<string>tart</string>
-	<key>CFBundlePackageType</key>
-	<string>APPL</string>
-	<key>LSApplicationCategoryType</key>
-	<string>public.app-category.developer-tools</string>
-	<key>CFBundleIconFile</key>
-	<string>UPW Tart</string>
-	<key>CFBundleIconName</key>
-	<string>UPW Tart</string>
+  <key>LSApplicationCategoryType</key>
+  <string>public.app-category.developer-tools</string>
+	<key>CFBundleIconFiles</key>
+	<array>
+		<string>AppIcon.png</string>
+	</array>
 	<key>NSAppTransportSecurity</key>
 	<dict>
 		<key>NSAllowsArbitraryLoads</key>
@@ -1,140 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "fill" : "automatic",
-  "groups" : [
-    {
-      "blend-mode" : "normal",
-      "blur-material" : 0.5,
-      "layers" : [
-        {
-          "hidden" : false,
-          "image-name-specializations" : [
-            {
-              "value" : "4.4-–-layer.png"
-            },
-            {
-              "idiom" : "square",
-              "value" : "UPW Tart L4.png"
-            }
-          ],
-          "name" : "UPW Tart L4"
-        }
-      ],
-      "opacity" : 1,
-      "shadow" : {
-        "kind" : "neutral",
-        "opacity" : 1
-      },
-      "specular" : true,
-      "translucency" : {
-        "enabled" : true,
-        "value" : 0.25
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "layers" : [
-        {
-          "image-name-specializations" : [
-            {
-              "value" : "3.3-–-layer.png"
-            },
-            {
-              "idiom" : "square",
-              "value" : "UPW Tart L3.png"
-            }
-          ],
-          "name" : "UPW Tart L3",
-          "position-specializations" : [
-            {
-              "idiom" : "square",
-              "value" : {
-                "scale" : 1,
-                "translation-in-points" : [
-                  0,
-                  0
-                ]
-              }
-            }
-          ]
-        }
-      ],
-      "shadow" : {
-        "kind" : "none",
-        "opacity" : 1
-      },
-      "specular" : false,
-      "translucency" : {
-        "enabled" : true,
-        "value" : 0.25
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "blur-material" : null,
-      "layers" : [
-        {
-          "image-name-specializations" : [
-            {
-              "value" : "2.2-–-layer.png"
-            },
-            {
-              "idiom" : "square",
-              "value" : "UPW Tart L2.png"
-            }
-          ],
-          "name" : "UPW Tart L2"
-        }
-      ],
-      "position-specializations" : [
-        {
-          "idiom" : "square",
-          "value" : {
-            "scale" : 1,
-            "translation-in-points" : [
-              0,
-              0
-            ]
-          }
-        }
-      ],
-      "shadow" : {
-        "kind" : "none",
-        "opacity" : 1
-      },
-      "specular" : true,
-      "translucency" : {
-        "enabled" : true,
-        "value" : 0.25
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "layers" : [
-        {
-          "image-name-specializations" : [
-            {
-              "value" : "1.1-–-layer.png"
-            },
-            {
-              "idiom" : "square",
-              "value" : "UPW Tart L1.png"
-            }
-          ],
-          "name" : "UPW Tart L1"
-        }
-      ],
-      "shadow" : {
-        "kind" : "layer-color",
-        "opacity" : 0.5
-      },
-      "specular" : true,
-      "translucency" : {
-        "enabled" : true,
-        "value" : 0.25
-      }
-    }
-  ],
-  "supported-platforms" : {
-    "circles" : [
-      "watchOS"
-    ],
-    "squares" : "shared"
-  }
-}
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
-<!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
-<plist version="1.0">
-<dict>
-	<key>CFBundleIconFile</key>
-	<string>UPW Tart</string>
-	<key>CFBundleIconName</key>
-	<string>UPW Tart</string>
-</dict>
-</plist>
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 struct CI {
-  private static let rawVersion = "${VERSION}"
+  private static let rawVersion = "${CIRRUS_TAG}"

  static var version: String {
    rawVersion.expanded() ? rawVersion : "SNAPSHOT"
@@ -31,9 +31,6 @@ struct Clone: AsyncParsableCommand {
  @Flag(help: .hidden)
  var deduplicate: Bool = false

-  @Flag(help: "create a stacked disk that uses the source image as an immutable base")
-  var stacked: Bool = false
-
  @Option(help: ArgumentHelp("limit automatic pruning to n gigabytes", valueName: "n"))
  var pruneLimit: UInt = 100

@@ -50,43 +47,14 @@ struct Clone: AsyncParsableCommand {
  func run() async throws {
    let ociStorage = try VMStorageOCI()
    let localStorage = try VMStorageLocal()
-    let remoteName = try? RemoteName(sourceName)

-    if stacked {
-      guard remoteName != nil else {
-        throw ValidationError("--stacked requires a remote image")
-      }
-      try DiskImageStack.requireSupport()
-    }
-
-    if let remoteName, try !ociStorage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(remoteName, requireManifest: stacked) {
+    if let remoteName = try? RemoteName(sourceName), !ociStorage.exists(remoteName) {
      // Pull the VM in case it's OCI-based and doesn't exist locally yet
      let registry = try Registry(host: remoteName.host, namespace: remoteName.namespace, insecure: insecure)
-      var resolvedManifest: (manifest: OCIManifest, data: Data)?
-
-      // Fail before pulling disk content when this host cannot create a writable stacked disk.
-      if !stacked {
-        let (manifest, manifestData) = try await registry.pullManifest(reference: remoteName.reference.value)
-        if manifest.layers.contains(where: { $0.mediaType == asifOverlayMediaType }) {
-          try DiskImageStack.requireSupport()
-        }
-        resolvedManifest = (manifest, manifestData)
-      }
-
-      try await ociStorage.pull(
-        remoteName,
-        registry: registry,
-        concurrency: concurrency,
-        deduplicate: deduplicate,
-        requireManifest: stacked,
-        resolvedManifest: resolvedManifest
-      )
+      try await ociStorage.pull(remoteName, registry: registry, concurrency: concurrency, deduplicate: deduplicate)
    }

    let sourceVM = try VMStorageHelper.open(sourceName)
-    if sourceVM.isStackedVM || sourceVM.isStackedCachedImage {
-      try DiskImageStack.requireSupport()
-    }
    let tmpVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()

    // Lock the temporary VM directory to prevent it's garbage collection
@@ -98,28 +66,9 @@ struct Clone: AsyncParsableCommand {
      let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: Config().tartHomeDir)
      try lock.lock()

-      let sourceState = try sourceVM.state()
      let generateMAC = try localStorage.hasVMsWithMACAddress(macAddress: sourceVM.macAddress())
-        && sourceState != .Suspended
-
-      if stacked {
-        guard sourceVM.isStandalone else {
-          throw ValidationError("--stacked cannot use an image that already has a stacked disk")
-        }
-        guard try VMConfig(fromURL: sourceVM.configURL).os == .darwin else {
-          throw ValidationError("--stacked currently supports only macOS images")
-        }
-        try sourceVM.cloneAsStackedBase(to: tmpVMDir, generateMAC: generateMAC)
-      } else if sourceVM.isStackedCachedImage {
-        try sourceVM.cloneStacked(to: tmpVMDir, copyWritableOverlay: false, generateMAC: generateMAC)
-      } else if sourceVM.isStackedVM {
-        guard sourceState == .Stopped else {
-          throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM \"\(sourceName)\" must be stopped before cloning")
-        }
-        try sourceVM.cloneStacked(to: tmpVMDir, copyWritableOverlay: true, generateMAC: generateMAC)
-      } else {
-        try sourceVM.clone(to: tmpVMDir, generateMAC: generateMAC)
-      }
+        && sourceVM.state() != .Suspended
+      try sourceVM.clone(to: tmpVMDir, generateMAC: generateMAC)

      try localStorage.move(newName, from: tmpVMDir)

@@ -129,26 +78,14 @@ struct Clone: AsyncParsableCommand {
      // is not actually claiming new space until the VM is started and it writes something to disk.
      //
      // So, once we clone the VM let's try to claim the rest of space for the VM to run without errors.
-      if sourceVM.isStandalone {
-        let unallocatedBytes = try sourceVM.sizeBytes() - sourceVM.allocatedSizeBytes()
-        // Avoid reclaiming an excessive amount of disk space.
-        let reclaimBytes = min(unallocatedBytes, Int(pruneLimit) * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)
-        if reclaimBytes > 0 {
-          try Prune.reclaimIfNeeded(UInt64(reclaimBytes), sourceVM)
-        }
-      } else if sourceVM.isStackedVM || sourceVM.isStackedCachedImage {
-        let clonedVM = try localStorage.open(newName)
-        // A stacked clone owns only its writable overlay locally, but that
-        // overlay may grow to the full guest-visible disk block layout at
-        // runtime. Reclaim against the clone so it is not pruned itself.
-        let unallocatedBytes = try clonedVM.diskSizeBytes() - clonedVM.allocatedSizeBytes()
-        let reclaimBytes = min(unallocatedBytes, Int(pruneLimit) * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)
-        if reclaimBytes > 0 {
-          try Prune.reclaimIfNeeded(UInt64(reclaimBytes), clonedVM)
-        }
+      let unallocatedBytes = try sourceVM.sizeBytes() - sourceVM.allocatedSizeBytes()
+      // Avoid reclaiming an excessive amount of disk space.
+      let reclaimBytes = min(unallocatedBytes, Int(pruneLimit) * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)
+      if reclaimBytes > 0 {
+        try Prune.reclaimIfNeeded(UInt64(reclaimBytes), sourceVM)
      }
    }, onCancel: {
-      try? tmpVMDir.removeFromDisk()
+      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: tmpVMDir.baseURL)
    })
  }
 }
@@ -74,10 +74,6 @@ struct Create: AsyncParsableCommand {
        _ = try await VM.linux(vmDir: tmpVMDir, diskSizeGB: diskSize, diskFormat: diskFormat)
      }

-      // Publish under the same lock that run holds while opening VM files.
-      let storageLock = try FileLock(lockURL: Config().tartHomeDir)
-      try storageLock.lock()
-      defer { withExtendedLifetime(storageLock) {} }
      try VMStorageLocal().move(name, from: tmpVMDir)
    }, onCancel: {
      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: tmpVMDir.baseURL)
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import ArgumentParser
 import Foundation
+import NIOPosix
 import GRPC
 import Cirruslabs_TartGuestAgent_Grpc_Swift

@@ -40,12 +41,27 @@ struct Exec: AsyncParsableCommand {
      throw RuntimeError.VMNotRunning(name)
    }

+    // Create a gRPC channel connected to the VM's control socket
+    let group = MultiThreadedEventLoopGroup(numberOfThreads: 1)
+    defer {
+      try! group.syncShutdownGracefully()
+    }
+
    // Change the current working directory to a VM's base directory
    // to work around Unix domain socket 104 byte limitation [1]
    //
    // [1]: https://blog.8-p.info/en/2020/06/11/unix-domain-socket-length/
    if let baseURL = vmDir.controlSocketURL.baseURL {
-      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.absoluteURL.path(percentEncoded: false))
+      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.path())
+    }
+
+    let channel = try GRPCChannelPool.with(
+      target: .unixDomainSocket(vmDir.controlSocketURL.relativePath),
+      transportSecurity: .plaintext,
+      eventLoopGroup: group,
+    )
+    defer {
+      try! channel.close().wait()
    }

    // Switch controlling terminal into raw mode when remote pseudo-terminal is requested
@@ -63,10 +79,7 @@ struct Exec: AsyncParsableCommand {

    // Execute a command in a running VM
    do {
-      let controlSocketPath = vmDir.controlSocketURL.relativePath
-      try await withGuestAgentChannel(unixDomainSocketPath: controlSocketPath) { channel in
-        try await execute(channel)
-      }
+      try await execute(channel)
    } catch let error as GRPCConnectionPoolError {
      throw RuntimeError.Generic("Failed to connect to the VM using its control socket: \(error.localizedDescription), is the Tart Guest Agent running?")
    }
@@ -129,11 +142,6 @@ struct Exec: AsyncParsableCommand {
              let data = handle.availableData

              if data.isEmpty {
-                // EOF: unregister the handler, otherwise the fd stays permanently
-                // "readable" and Foundation re-invokes us in a tight loop, burning
-                // 100% of a core for the rest of the command's lifetime
-                handle.readabilityHandler = nil
-
                continuation.finish()
              } else {
                continuation.yield(data)
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ struct Export: AsyncParsableCommand {
  func userWantsOverwrite(_ filename: String) -> Bool {
    print("file \(filename) already exists, are you sure you want to overwrite it? (yes, [no])? ", terminator: "")

-    let answer = readLine()
+    let answer = readLine()!

    return answer == "yes"
  }
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@ fileprivate struct VMInfo: Encodable {
  let OS: OS
  let CPU: Int
  let Memory: UInt64
-  let Disk: HumanReadableByteCount
+  let Disk: Int
  let DiskFormat: String
-  let Size: HumanReadableByteCount
+  let Size: String
  let Display: String
  let Running: Bool
  let State: String
@@ -27,20 +27,7 @@ struct Get: AsyncParsableCommand {
    let vmConfig = try VMConfig(fromURL: vmDir.configURL)
    let memorySizeInMb = vmConfig.memorySize / 1024 / 1024

-    let info = VMInfo(
-      OS: vmConfig.os,
-      CPU: vmConfig.cpuCount,
-      Memory: memorySizeInMb,
-      // ASIF capacity lookup can fail while a running VM holds the disk open.
-      Disk: HumanReadableByteCount(try? vmDir.diskSizeBytes()) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 },
-      DiskFormat: vmConfig.diskFormat.rawValue,
-      Size: HumanReadableByteCount(try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes()) {
-        String(format: "%.3f", Float($0) / 1000 / 1000 / 1000)
-      },
-      Display: vmConfig.display.description,
-      Running: try vmDir.running(),
-      State: try vmDir.state().rawValue
-    )
+    let info = VMInfo(OS: vmConfig.os, CPU: vmConfig.cpuCount, Memory: memorySizeInMb, Disk: try vmDir.sizeGB(), DiskFormat: vmConfig.diskFormat.rawValue, Size: String(format: "%.3f", Float(try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes()) / 1000 / 1000 / 1000), Display: vmConfig.display.description, Running: try vmDir.running(), State: try vmDir.state().rawValue)
    print(format.renderSingle(info))
  }
 }
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ struct IP: AsyncParsableCommand {
        //
        // [1]: https://blog.8-p.info/en/2020/06/11/unix-domain-socket-length/
        if let baseURL = controlSocketURL.baseURL {
-          FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.absoluteURL.path(percentEncoded: false))
+          FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.path())
        }

        if let ip = try await AgentResolver.ResolveIP(controlSocketURL.relativePath) {
@@ -21,9 +21,6 @@ struct Import: AsyncParsableCommand {

    // Create a temporary VM directory to which we will load the export file
    let tmpVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-    defer {
-      try? tmpVMDir.removeFromDisk()
-    }

    // Lock the temporary VM directory to prevent it's garbage collection
    // while we're running
@@ -33,9 +30,6 @@ struct Import: AsyncParsableCommand {
    // Populate the temporary VM directory with the export file contents
    print("importing...")
    try tmpVMDir.importFromArchive(path: path)
-    guard tmpVMDir.initialized else {
-      throw RuntimeError.ImportFailed("archive does not contain a runnable VM")
-    }

    try await withTaskCancellationHandler(operation: {
      // Acquire a global lock
@@ -51,7 +45,7 @@ struct Import: AsyncParsableCommand {

      try lock.unlock()
    }, onCancel: {
-      try? tmpVMDir.removeFromDisk()
+      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: tmpVMDir.baseURL)
    })
  }
 }
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ import SwiftUI
 fileprivate struct VMInfo: Encodable {
  let Source: String
  let Name: String
-  let Disk: HumanReadableByteCount
-  let Size: HumanReadableByteCount
+  let Disk: Int
+  let Size: Int
  let Accessed: String
  let Running: Bool
  let State: String
@@ -42,9 +42,8 @@ struct List: AsyncParsableCommand {
        try VMInfo(
          Source: "local",
          Name: name,
-          // ASIF capacity lookup can fail while a running VM holds the disk open.
-          Disk: HumanReadableByteCount(try? vmDir.diskSizeBytes()) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 },
-          Size: HumanReadableByteCount(try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes()) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 },
+          Disk: vmDir.sizeGB(),
+          Size: vmDir.allocatedSizeGB(),
          Accessed: formatAccessDate(try vmDir.accessDate()),
          Running: vmDir.running(),
          State: vmDir.state().rawValue
@@ -57,8 +56,8 @@ struct List: AsyncParsableCommand {
        try VMInfo(
          Source: "OCI",
          Name: name,
-          Disk: HumanReadableByteCount(try? vmDir.diskSizeBytes()) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 },
-          Size: HumanReadableByteCount(try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes()) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 },
+          Disk: vmDir.sizeGB(),
+          Size: vmDir.allocatedSizeGB(),
          Accessed: formatAccessDate(try vmDir.accessDate()),
          Running: vmDir.running(),
          State: vmDir.state().rawValue
@@ -81,34 +81,27 @@ struct Prune: AsyncParsableCommand {
  }

  static func pruneSpaceBudget(prunableStorages: [PrunableStorage], spaceBudgetBytes: UInt64) throws {
-    while true {
-      let prunables: [Prunable] = try prunableStorages
-        .flatMap { try $0.prunables() }
-        .sorted { try $0.accessDate() > $1.accessDate() }
+    let prunables: [Prunable] = try prunableStorages
+      .flatMap { try $0.prunables() }
+      .sorted { try $0.accessDate() > $1.accessDate() }

-      var remainingBudgetBytes = spaceBudgetBytes
-      var prunableToDelete: Prunable?
+    var spaceBudgetBytes = spaceBudgetBytes
+    var prunablesToDelete: [Prunable] = []

-      for prunable in prunables {
-        let prunableSizeBytes = UInt64(try prunable.allocatedSizeBytes())
+    for prunable in prunables {
+      let prunableSizeBytes = UInt64(try prunable.allocatedSizeBytes())

-        if prunableSizeBytes <= remainingBudgetBytes {
-          // Don't mark for deletion as there is budget available
-          remainingBudgetBytes -= prunableSizeBytes
-        } else {
-          prunableToDelete = prunable
-          break
-        }
+      if prunableSizeBytes <= spaceBudgetBytes {
+        // Don't mark for deletion as
+        // there's a budget available
+        spaceBudgetBytes -= prunableSizeBytes
+      } else {
+        // Mark for deletion
+        prunablesToDelete.append(prunable)
      }
-
-      guard let prunableToDelete else {
-        return
-      }
-
-      // Deleting one cached stacked image can change which remaining image
-      // owns shared immutable content. Rebuild before choosing another.
-      try prunableToDelete.delete()
    }
+
+    try prunablesToDelete.forEach { try $0.delete() }
  }

  static func reclaimIfNeeded(_ requiredBytes: UInt64, _ initiator: Prunable? = nil) throws {
@@ -152,51 +145,46 @@ struct Prune: AsyncParsableCommand {
    try Prune.reclaimIfPossible(requiredBytes - volumeAvailableCapacityCalculated, initiator)
  }

-  static func reclaimIfPossible(_ reclaimBytes: UInt64, _ initiator: Prunable? = nil) throws {
+  private static func reclaimIfPossible(_ reclaimBytes: UInt64, _ initiator: Prunable? = nil) throws {
    let span = OTel.shared.tracer.spanBuilder(spanName: "prune").startSpan()
    defer { span.end() }

    let prunableStorages: [PrunableStorage] = [try VMStorageOCI(), try IPSWCache()]
-    let prunables = {
-      try prunableStorages
-        .flatMap { try $0.prunables() }
-        .sorted { try $0.accessDate() < $1.accessDate() }
-    }
+    let prunables: [Prunable] = try prunableStorages
+      .flatMap { try $0.prunables() }
+      .sorted { try $0.accessDate() < $1.accessDate() }

    // Does it even make sense to start?
-    let initialPrunables = try prunables()
-    let initialCacheUsedBytes = try initialPrunables.map { try $0.allocatedSizeBytes() }.reduce(0, +)
-    guard let reclaimBytes = Int(exactly: reclaimBytes), initialCacheUsedBytes >= reclaimBytes else {
+    let cacheUsedBytes = try prunables.map { try $0.allocatedSizeBytes() }.reduce(0, +)
+    if cacheUsedBytes < reclaimBytes {
      return
    }

-    let targetCacheUsedBytes = initialCacheUsedBytes - reclaimBytes
-    var currentCacheUsedBytes = initialCacheUsedBytes
-    let initiatorPath = initiator.map {
-      $0.url.resolvingSymlinksInPath().standardizedFileURL.path
-    }
+    var cacheReclaimedBytes: Int = 0

-    while currentCacheUsedBytes > targetCacheUsedBytes {
-      // Deleting one cached stacked image can transfer ownership of shared
-      // immutable content to another record without reclaiming those bytes.
-      // Rebuild the candidates after every deletion so automatic pruning
-      // measures the cache that remains rather than a stale ownership snapshot.
-      guard let prunable = try prunables().first(where: {
-        $0.url.resolvingSymlinksInPath().standardizedFileURL.path != initiatorPath
-      }) else {
+    var it = prunables.makeIterator()
+
+    while cacheReclaimedBytes <= reclaimBytes {
+      guard let prunable = it.next() else {
        break
      }

+      if prunable.url == initiator?.url.resolvingSymlinksInPath() {
+        // do not prune the initiator
+        continue
+      }
+
      let allocatedSizeBytes = try prunable.allocatedSizeBytes()

      OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?
        .addEvent(name: "Pruned \(allocatedSizeBytes) bytes for \(prunable.url.path)")

+      cacheReclaimedBytes += allocatedSizeBytes
+
      try prunable.delete()
-      currentCacheUsedBytes = try prunables().map { try $0.allocatedSizeBytes() }.reduce(0, +)
    }

    OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?
-      .addEvent(name: "Reclaimed \(initialCacheUsedBytes - currentCacheUsedBytes) bytes")
+      .addEvent(name: "Reclaimed \(cacheReclaimedBytes) bytes")
  }
 }
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ struct Push: AsyncParsableCommand {
      let references = remoteNamesForRegistry.map{ $0.reference.value }

      let pushedRemoteName: RemoteName
-      // If we're pushing a cached remote image, check if it points to an existing registry manifest
+      // If we're pushing a local OCI VM, check if points to an already existing registry manifest
      // and if so, only upload manifests (without config, disk and NVRAM) to the user-specified references
      if let remoteName = try? RemoteName(localName) {
        pushedRemoteName = try await lightweightPushToRegistry(
@@ -78,18 +78,17 @@ struct Push: AsyncParsableCommand {
          references: references
        )
      } else {
-        let pushedImage = try await localVMDir.pushToRegistry(
+        pushedRemoteName = try await localVMDir.pushToRegistry(
          registry: registry,
          references: references,
          chunkSizeMb: chunkSize,
          concurrency: concurrency,
          labels: parseLabels()
        )
-        pushedRemoteName = pushedImage.name
-
        // Populate the local cache (if requested)
        if populateCache {
-          try ociStorage.populate(pushedImage.name, from: localVMDir, manifest: pushedImage.manifest)
+          let expectedPushedVMDir = try ociStorage.create(pushedRemoteName)
+          try localVMDir.clone(to: expectedPushedVMDir, generateMAC: false)
        }
      }

@@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ struct Push: AsyncParsableCommand {
  }

  func lightweightPushToRegistry(registry: Registry, remoteName: RemoteName, references: [String]) async throws -> RemoteName {
-    // Is the cached remote image already present in the registry?
+    // Is the local OCI VM already present in the registry?
    let digest = try VMStorageOCI().digest(remoteName)

    let (remoteManifest, _) = try await registry.pullManifest(reference: digest)
@@ -18,9 +18,6 @@ struct Rename: AsyncParsableCommand {

  func run() async throws {
    let localStorage = try VMStorageLocal()
-    let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: Config().tartHomeDir)
-    try lock.lock()
-    defer { withExtendedLifetime(lock) {} }

    if !localStorage.exists(name) {
      throw ValidationError("failed to rename a non-existent local VM: \(name)")
@@ -90,9 +90,6 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
  @Flag(help: "Disable audio pass-through to host.")
  var noAudio: Bool = false

-  @Flag(help: "Disable USB accessories.")
-  var noUSBAccessories: Bool = false
-
  @Flag(help: ArgumentHelp(
    "Disable clipboard sharing between host and guest.",
    discussion: "Clipboard sharing requires spice-vdagent package on Linux and https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart-guest-agent on macOS."))
@@ -227,13 +224,6 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
  """, valueName: "comma-separated CIDRs"))
  var netSoftnetBlock: String?

-  @Option(help: ArgumentHelp("Connected Unix stream socket file descriptor to use for the Softnet control channel (e.g. --net-softnet-control-fd=3)", discussion: """
-  This option enables the Softnet control channel on an inherited Unix stream socket. It can be used to dynamically replace Softnet allow and block lists while the VM is running.
-
-  The file descriptor must be greater than 2. Implies --net-softnet.
-  """, valueName: "file descriptor"))
-  var netSoftnetControlFd: Int32?
-
  @Option(help: ArgumentHelp("Comma-separated list of TCP ports to expose (e.g. --net-softnet-expose 2222:22,8080:80)", discussion: """
  Options are comma-separated and are as follows:

@@ -295,35 +285,13 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
  @Flag(help: ArgumentHelp("Disable the keyboard"))
  var noKeyboard: Bool = false

-  #if arch(arm64) && compiler(>=6.4)
-    @Option(help: ArgumentHelp("Provision a macOS guest on first boot using the guest provisioning API", discussion: """
-    Takes a comma-separated list of key=value pairs that configure the initial setup of a macOS guest
-
-    Requires the host to be running macOS 27 (or newer) and only takes effect on the first boot after
-    creation of a macOS 27 (or newer) guest VM.
-
-    Supported keys (matching VZMacGuestProvisioningOptions):
-
-    * fullName=<NAME> — the person's full name to configure
-
-    * username=<USERNAME> — the username for logging into the guest
-
-    * password=<PASSWORD> — the password to configure for the guest
-
-    * logsInAutomatically=true|false — whether to automatically log the person in at startup
-
-    * enablesRemoteLogin=true|false — whether to enable Remote Login (SSH) in the guest
-    """, valueName: "key=value,..."))
-    var provisioningOpts: String?
-  #endif
-
  mutating func validate() throws {
    if vnc && vncExperimental {
      throw ValidationError("--vnc and --vnc-experimental are mutually exclusive")
    }

    // Automatically enable --net-softnet when any of its related options are specified
-    if netSoftnetAllow != nil || netSoftnetBlock != nil || netSoftnetExpose != nil || netSoftnetControlFd != nil {
+    if netSoftnetAllow != nil || netSoftnetBlock != nil || netSoftnetExpose != nil {
      netSoftnet = true
    }

@@ -384,19 +352,6 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
      }
    }

-    #if arch(arm64) && compiler(>=6.4)
-      if provisioningOpts != nil {
-        if #unavailable(macOS 27) {
-          throw ValidationError("--provisioning-opts requires the host to be running macOS 27 (or newer)")
-        }
-
-        let config = try VMConfig.init(fromURL: vmDir.configURL)
-        if config.os != .darwin {
-          throw ValidationError("--provisioning-opts can only be used with macOS VMs")
-        }
-      }
-    #endif
-
    for disk in disk {
      if disk.hasSuffix("-amd64.iso") {
        throw ValidationError("Seems you have a disk targeting x86 architecture (hence amd64 in the name). Please use an 'arm64' version of the disk.")
@@ -405,7 +360,7 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
  }

  @MainActor
-  func runOnMainThread() throws {
+  func run() async throws {
    let localStorage = try VMStorageLocal()
    let vmDir = try localStorage.open(name)

@@ -453,27 +408,16 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
    // Parse root disk options
    let diskOptions = DiskOptions(rootDiskOpts)

-    // Parse guest provisioning options
-    #if arch(arm64) && compiler(>=6.4)
-      let provisioning = try provisioningOpts.map { try GuestProvisioningOptions($0) }
-    #endif
-
-    // Keep these values alive while the VM runs. Some additional disks own a
-    // lock that protects their temporary backing files from Config.gc().
-    let additionalDisks = try additionalDisks()
-    defer { withExtendedLifetime(additionalDisks) {} }
-
    vm = try VM(
      vmDir: vmDir,
      network: userSpecifiedNetwork(vmDir: vmDir) ?? NetworkShared(),
-      additionalStorageDevices: additionalDisks.map(\.configuration),
+      additionalStorageDevices: try additionalDiskAttachments(),
      directorySharingDevices: directoryShares() + rosettaDirectoryShare(),
      serialPorts: serialPorts,
      suspendable: suspendable,
      nested: nested,
      audio: !noAudio,
      clipboard: !noClipboard,
-      noUSBAccessories: noUSBAccessories,
      sync: VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode(diskOptions.syncModeRaw),
      caching: VZDiskImageCachingMode(diskOptions.cachingModeRaw),
      noTrackpad: noTrackpad,
@@ -529,11 +473,7 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
        #endif

        do {
-          #if arch(arm64) && compiler(>=6.4)
-            try await vm!.start(recovery: recovery, resume: resume, provisioning: provisioning)
-          #else
-            try await vm!.start(recovery: recovery, resume: resume)
-          #endif
+          try await vm!.start(recovery: recovery, resume: resume)
        } catch let error as VZError {
          if error.code == .virtualMachineLimitExceeded {
            var hint = ""
@@ -574,10 +514,8 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
        }

        if #available(macOS 14, *) {
-          let controlSocket = try await ControlSocket(vmDir.controlSocketURL)
-
-          ErrorReportingTask("Failed to run control socket") {
-            try await controlSocket.run()
+          Task {
+            try await ControlSocket(vmDir.controlSocketURL).run()
          }
        }

@@ -648,7 +586,7 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
    signal(SIGUSR2, SIG_IGN)
    let sigusr2Src = DispatchSource.makeSignalSource(signal: SIGUSR2)
    sigusr2Src.setEventHandler {
-      ErrorReportingTask("Failed to request guest OS to stop") {
+      Task {
        print("Requesting guest OS to stop...")
        try vm!.virtualMachine.requestStop()
      }
@@ -699,13 +637,13 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
    if netSoftnet {
      let config = try VMConfig.init(fromURL: vmDir.configURL)

-      return try Softnet(vmMACAddress: config.macAddress.string, extraArguments: softnetExtraArguments, controlFD: netSoftnetControlFd)
+      return try Softnet(vmMACAddress: config.macAddress.string, extraArguments: softnetExtraArguments)
    }

    if netHost {
      let config = try VMConfig.init(fromURL: vmDir.configURL)

-      return try Softnet(vmMACAddress: config.macAddress.string, extraArguments: ["--vm-net-type", "host"] + softnetExtraArguments, controlFD: netSoftnetControlFd)
+      return try Softnet(vmMACAddress: config.macAddress.string, extraArguments: ["--vm-net-type", "host"] + softnetExtraArguments)
    }

    if netBridged.count > 0 {
@@ -738,9 +676,9 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
    }
  }

-  func additionalDisks() throws -> [AdditionalDisk] {
+  func additionalDiskAttachments() throws -> [VZStorageDeviceConfiguration] {
    try disk.map {
-      try AdditionalDisk(parseFrom: $0)
+      try AdditionalDisk(parseFrom: $0).configuration
    }
  }

@@ -820,11 +758,6 @@ struct Run: AsyncParsableCommand {
  }
 }

-// "tart run" drives an AppKit/SwiftUI run loop and therefore must own the main
-// thread at the top level, so it opts out of Root's asynchronous command path.
-// See Root.main() for the rationale.
-extension Run: MainThreadCommand {}
-
 struct MainApp: App {
  static var suspendable: Bool = false
  static var capturesSystemKeys: Bool = false
@@ -865,13 +798,13 @@ struct MainApp: App {
      CommandGroup(replacing: .appInfo) { AboutTart(config: vm!.config) }
      CommandMenu("Control") {
        Button("Start") {
-          ErrorReportingTask("Failed to start VM") { try await vm!.virtualMachine.start() }
+          Task { try await vm!.virtualMachine.start() }
        }
        Button("Stop") {
-          ErrorReportingTask("Failed to stop VM") { try await vm!.virtualMachine.stop() }
+          Task { try await vm!.virtualMachine.stop() }
        }
        Button("Request Stop") {
-          ErrorReportingTask("Failed to request VM stop") { try vm!.virtualMachine.requestStop() }
+          Task { try vm!.virtualMachine.requestStop() }
        }
        if #available(macOS 14, *) {
          if (MainApp.suspendable) {
@@ -963,32 +896,14 @@ struct VMView: NSViewRepresentable {

 struct AdditionalDisk {
  let configuration: VZStorageDeviceConfiguration
-  // Retained for as long as the additional disk is attached, so Config.gc()
-  // cannot remove a temporary backing file or stacked-disk directory.
-  private let temporaryDiskLock: FileLock?

  init(parseFrom: String) throws {
    let (diskPath, readOnly, syncModeRaw, cachingModeRaw) = Self.parseOptions(parseFrom)

-    self = try Self.craft(
-      diskPath,
-      readOnly: readOnly,
-      syncModeRaw: syncModeRaw,
-      cachingModeRaw: cachingModeRaw
-    )
+    self.configuration = try Self.craft(diskPath, readOnly: readOnly, syncModeRaw: syncModeRaw, cachingModeRaw: cachingModeRaw)
  }

-  private init(configuration: VZStorageDeviceConfiguration, temporaryDiskLock: FileLock? = nil) {
-    self.configuration = configuration
-    self.temporaryDiskLock = temporaryDiskLock
-  }
-
-  private static func craft(
-    _ diskPath: String,
-    readOnly diskReadOnly: Bool,
-    syncModeRaw: String,
-    cachingModeRaw: String
-  ) throws -> AdditionalDisk {
+  static func craft(_ diskPath: String, readOnly diskReadOnly: Bool, syncModeRaw: String, cachingModeRaw: String) throws -> VZStorageDeviceConfiguration {
    let diskURL = URL(string: diskPath)

    if (["nbd", "nbds", "nbd+unix", "nbds+unix"].contains(diskURL?.scheme)) {
@@ -1003,7 +918,7 @@ struct AdditionalDisk {
        synchronizationMode: try VZDiskSynchronizationMode(syncModeRaw)
      )

-      return AdditionalDisk(configuration: VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: nbdAttachment))
+      return VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: nbdAttachment)
    }

    // Expand the tilde (~) since at this point we're dealing with a local path,
@@ -1034,37 +949,13 @@ struct AdditionalDisk {
      let blockAttachment = try VZDiskBlockDeviceStorageDeviceAttachment(fileHandle: FileHandle(fileDescriptor: fd, closeOnDealloc: true),
                                                                         readOnly: diskReadOnly, synchronizationMode: try VZDiskSynchronizationMode(syncModeRaw))

-      return AdditionalDisk(configuration: VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: blockAttachment))
+      return VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: blockAttachment)
    }

    // Support remote VM names in --disk command-line argument
    if let remoteName = try? RemoteName(diskPath) {
      let vmDir = try VMStorageOCI().open(remoteName)

-      if vmDir.isStackedCachedImage {
-        // A cached stacked image has no writable top overlay. Create one in a
-        // disposable directory for this additional-disk attachment.
-        let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-        let temporaryVMDirLock = try FileLock(lockURL: temporaryVMDir.baseURL)
-        try temporaryVMDirLock.lock()
-        try vmDir.cloneStacked(
-          to: temporaryVMDir,
-          copyWritableOverlay: false,
-          generateMAC: false
-        )
-        let stack = try temporaryVMDir.diskImageStack()
-        let attachment = try stack.makeAttachment(
-          readOnly: diskReadOnly,
-          cachingMode: try VZDiskImageCachingMode(cachingModeRaw) ?? .automatic,
-          synchronizationMode: try VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode(syncModeRaw)
-        )
-
-        return AdditionalDisk(
-          configuration: VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: attachment),
-          temporaryDiskLock: temporaryVMDirLock
-        )
-      }
-
      // Unfortunately, VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment does not support
      // FileHandle, so we can't easily clone the disk, open it and unlink(2)
      // to simplify the garbage collection, so use an intermediate directory.
@@ -1077,7 +968,7 @@ struct AdditionalDisk {

      let diskImageAttachment = try VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment(url: clonedDiskURL, readOnly: diskReadOnly)

-      return AdditionalDisk(configuration: VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: diskImageAttachment), temporaryDiskLock: lock)
+      return VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: diskImageAttachment)
    }

    // Error out if the disk is locked by the host (e.g. it was mounted in Finder),
@@ -1093,7 +984,7 @@ struct AdditionalDisk {
      synchronizationMode: try VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode(syncModeRaw)
    )

-    return AdditionalDisk(configuration: VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: diskImageAttachment))
+    return VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: diskImageAttachment)
  }

  static func parseOptions(_ parseFrom: String) -> (String, Bool, String, String) {
@@ -1135,81 +1026,6 @@ struct DiskOptions {
  }
 }

-struct GuestProvisioningOptions {
-  var fullName: String?
-  var username: String?
-  var password: String?
-  var logsInAutomatically: Bool?
-  var enablesRemoteLogin: Bool?
-
-  init(_ parseFrom: String) throws {
-    for pair in parseFrom.split(separator: ",") {
-      let keyValue = pair.split(separator: "=", maxSplits: 1)
-      guard keyValue.count == 2 else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("invalid provisioning option \"\(pair)\", expected key=value")
-      }
-
-      let key = String(keyValue[0])
-      let value = String(keyValue[1])
-
-      switch key {
-      case "fullName":
-        self.fullName = value
-      case "username":
-        self.username = value
-      case "password":
-        self.password = value
-      case "logsInAutomatically":
-        self.logsInAutomatically = try Self.parseBool(key, value)
-      case "enablesRemoteLogin":
-        self.enablesRemoteLogin = try Self.parseBool(key, value)
-      default:
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("unsupported provisioning option \"\(key)\"")
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  private static func parseBool(_ key: String, _ value: String) throws -> Bool {
-    switch value {
-    case "true":
-      return true
-    case "false":
-      return false
-    default:
-      throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("invalid value \"\(value)\" for provisioning option \"\(key)\", expected \"true\" or \"false\"")
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-#if arch(arm64) && compiler(>=6.4)
-  @available(macOS 27, *)
-  extension GuestProvisioningOptions {
-    func toVZMacGuestProvisioningOptions() throws -> VZMacGuestProvisioningOptions {
-      let options = VZMacGuestProvisioningOptions()
-
-      if let fullName = fullName {
-        options.fullName = fullName
-      }
-      if let username = username {
-        options.username = username
-      }
-      if let password = password {
-        options.password = password
-      }
-      if let logsInAutomatically = logsInAutomatically {
-        options.logsInAutomatically = logsInAutomatically
-      }
-      if let enablesRemoteLogin = enablesRemoteLogin {
-        options.enablesRemoteLogin = enablesRemoteLogin
-      }
-
-      try options.validate()
-
-      return options
-    }
-  }
-#endif
-
 struct DirectoryShare {
  let name: String?
  let path: URL
@@ -39,14 +39,6 @@ struct Set: AsyncParsableCommand {

  func run() async throws {
    let vmDir = try VMStorageLocal().open(name)
-
-    // Replacing disk.img would leave a stacked VM with both disk.img and
-    // overlay.asif, which is not a supported local layout. Reject before
-    // saving any other requested configuration changes.
-    if disk != nil, vmDir.isStackedVM {
-      throw ValidationError("--disk is not supported for VMs with a stacked disk")
-    }
-
    var vmConfig = try VMConfig(fromURL: vmDir.configURL)

    if let cpu = cpu {
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ struct Config {
        continue
      }

-      try VMDirectory(baseURL: entry).removeFromDisk()
+      try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: entry)

      try lock.unlock()
    }
@@ -1,192 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-
-enum ContentStoreError: Error, Equatable {
-  case invalidContentDigest(String)
-  case contentDigestMismatch(expected: String, actual: String)
-}
-
-/// Opaque content-addressed storage for immutable reconstructed files.
-///
-/// Stacked disks currently use it for complete base disks and published ASIF
-/// overlays reconstructed from Tart disk chunks. OCI blob digests may differ
-/// across registries, so the key is the full reconstructed-file digest.
-struct ContentStore {
-  private static let digestAlgorithm = "sha256"
-  private static let digestPrefix = "\(digestAlgorithm):"
-
-  let baseURL: URL
-  private let digestDirectoryURL: URL
-  private let pruneLockURL: URL
-
-  init() throws {
-    try self.init(baseURL: Config().tartCacheDir.appendingPathComponent("content", isDirectory: true))
-  }
-
-  init(baseURL: URL) throws {
-    self.baseURL = baseURL
-    self.digestDirectoryURL = baseURL.appendingPathComponent(Self.digestAlgorithm, isDirectory: true)
-    self.pruneLockURL = baseURL.appendingPathComponent(".gc.lock")
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: digestDirectoryURL, withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-    if !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: pruneLockURL.path) {
-      _ = FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: pruneLockURL.path, contents: Data())
-    }
-  }
-
-  /// Serializes reference publication with the final reference check and
-  /// deletion of immutable cache entries across Tart processes.
-  func withPruneLock<T>(_ body: () throws -> T) throws -> T {
-    let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: pruneLockURL)
-    try lock.lock()
-    defer { try? lock.unlock() }
-
-    return try body()
-  }
-
-  /// Waits for any prune already scanning references to finish. After this
-  /// returns, later prune runs can see a reference the caller already wrote.
-  func synchronizePublishedReferences() throws {
-    try withPruneLock {}
-  }
-
-  func contentURL(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL {
-    try contentURL(for: contentDigest, under: baseURL)
-  }
-
-  /// Returns the canonical path for a digest under an arbitrary content-store
-  /// root without creating directories or lock files.
-  func contentURL(for contentDigest: String, under baseURL: URL) throws -> URL {
-    let digestHex = try validatedDigestHex(contentDigest)
-
-    return baseURL
-      .appendingPathComponent(Self.digestAlgorithm, isDirectory: true)
-      .appendingPathComponent(digestHex)
-  }
-
-  func temporaryContentURL(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL {
-    let targetURL = try contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-
-    return targetURL.deletingLastPathComponent().appendingPathComponent(".\(UUID().uuidString).tmp")
-  }
-
-  /// Returns a stable staging path so an interrupted registry pull can resume
-  /// reconstructing this content entry on a later attempt.
-  func resumableContentURL(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL {
-    let targetURL = try contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-
-    return targetURL.deletingLastPathComponent().appendingPathComponent(".\(targetURL.lastPathComponent).partial")
-  }
-
-  /// Returns a stable lock file for serializing reconstruction of one content
-  /// entry. The file is intentionally retained; flock state lives on the file
-  /// descriptor and disappears when the owning process exits.
-  func lockURL(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL {
-    let targetURL = try contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-
-    let lockURL = targetURL.deletingLastPathComponent().appendingPathComponent(".\(targetURL.lastPathComponent).lock")
-    if !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: lockURL.path) {
-      _ = FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: lockURL.path, contents: nil)
-    }
-
-    return lockURL
-  }
-
-  /// Returns an immutable digest-addressed entry without rereading it. Files
-  /// are verified when installed and when deciding whether a pull is a cache
-  /// hit; normal clone/run/push paths trust the store like Tart's disk.img.
-  func contentURLIfPresent(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL? {
-    let url = try contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-
-    guard FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: url.path) else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    try url.updateAccessDate()
-
-    return url
-  }
-
-  /// Returns a validated cache hit. Corrupt files are treated as misses so a
-  /// later pull can safely rebuild them.
-  func existingContentURL(for contentDigest: String) throws -> URL? {
-    guard let url = try contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest) else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    guard try Digest.hash(url) == contentDigest else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    return url
-  }
-
-  /// Returns immutable content files that no retained cached image or local VM
-  /// references. Callers may prune these like other cache entries.
-  func prunables(excluding referencedContentDigests: Swift.Set<String>) throws -> [URL] {
-    guard let enumerator = FileManager.default.enumerator(
-      at: digestDirectoryURL,
-      includingPropertiesForKeys: [.isRegularFileKey],
-      options: [.skipsSubdirectoryDescendants]
-    ) else {
-      return []
-    }
-
-    return try enumerator.compactMap { element in
-      guard let url = element as? URL,
-            try url.resourceValues(forKeys: [.isRegularFileKey]).isRegularFile == true else {
-        return nil
-      }
-
-      let contentDigest = "\(Self.digestPrefix)\(url.lastPathComponent)"
-      guard (try? validatedDigestHex(contentDigest)) != nil,
-            !referencedContentDigests.contains(contentDigest) else {
-        return nil
-      }
-
-      return url
-    }
-  }
-
-  /// Move a fully reconstructed temporary file into the cache after verifying
-  /// its semantic identity. The caller should create the temporary file with
-  /// temporaryContentURL(for:) or resumableContentURL(for:) so rename stays on
-  /// the same filesystem.
-  func install(_ temporaryURL: URL, contentDigest: String) throws -> URL {
-    let actualDigest = try Digest.hash(temporaryURL)
-    guard actualDigest == contentDigest else {
-      throw ContentStoreError.contentDigestMismatch(expected: contentDigest, actual: actualDigest)
-    }
-
-    let targetURL = try contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-    let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: baseURL)
-    try lock.lock()
-    defer { try? lock.unlock() }
-
-    if let existingURL = try existingContentURL(for: contentDigest) {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-      return existingURL
-    }
-
-    if FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: targetURL.path) {
-      _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(targetURL, withItemAt: temporaryURL)
-    } else {
-      try FileManager.default.moveItem(at: temporaryURL, to: targetURL)
-    }
-
-    return targetURL
-  }
-
-  private func validatedDigestHex(_ contentDigest: String) throws -> String {
-    guard contentDigest.hasPrefix(Self.digestPrefix) else {
-      throw ContentStoreError.invalidContentDigest(contentDigest)
-    }
-
-    let digestHex = String(contentDigest.dropFirst(Self.digestPrefix.count))
-    let isHex = digestHex.allSatisfy { $0.isHexDigit && !$0.isUppercase }
-
-    guard digestHex.count == 64, isHex else {
-      throw ContentStoreError.invalidContentDigest(contentDigest)
-    }
-
-    return digestHex
-  }
-}
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
 import Foundation
-import Darwin
-import System
-import Virtualization
 import Network
 import os.log
 import NIO
@@ -9,48 +6,38 @@ import NIOPosix

@available(macOS 14, *)
 class ControlSocket {
-  typealias ServerChannel = NIOAsyncChannel<NIOAsyncChannel<ByteBuffer, ByteBuffer>, Never>
-
  let controlSocketURL: URL
  let vmPort: UInt32
-  let eventLoopGroup: MultiThreadedEventLoopGroup
-  let serverChannel: ServerChannel
+  let eventLoopGroup = MultiThreadedEventLoopGroup(numberOfThreads: 1)
  let logger: os.Logger = os.Logger(subsystem: "org.cirruslabs.tart.control-socket", category: "network")

-  init(_ controlSocketURL: URL, vmPort: UInt32 = 8080) async throws {
+  init(_ controlSocketURL: URL, vmPort: UInt32 = 8080) {
    self.controlSocketURL = controlSocketURL
    self.vmPort = vmPort
-    let eventLoopGroup = MultiThreadedEventLoopGroup(numberOfThreads: 1)
-    self.eventLoopGroup = eventLoopGroup
+  }

+  func run() async throws {
    // Remove control socket file from previous "tart run" invocations,
    // if any, otherwise we may get the "address already in use" error
-    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: controlSocketURL)
+    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(atPath: controlSocketURL.path())

    // Change the current working directory to a VM's base directory
    // to work around Unix domain socket 104 byte limitation [1]
    //
    // [1]: https://blog.8-p.info/en/2020/06/11/unix-domain-socket-length/
    if let baseURL = controlSocketURL.baseURL {
-      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.absoluteURL.path(percentEncoded: false))
+      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(baseURL.path())
    }

-    do {
-      self.serverChannel = try await ServerBootstrap(group: eventLoopGroup)
-        .bind(unixDomainSocketPath: controlSocketURL.relativePath) { childChannel in
-          childChannel.eventLoop.makeCompletedFuture {
-            return try NIOAsyncChannel<ByteBuffer, ByteBuffer>(
-              wrappingChannelSynchronously: childChannel
-            )
-          }
+    let serverChannel = try await ServerBootstrap(group: eventLoopGroup)
+      .bind(unixDomainSocketPath: controlSocketURL.relativePath) { childChannel in
+        childChannel.eventLoop.makeCompletedFuture {
+          return try NIOAsyncChannel<ByteBuffer, ByteBuffer>(
+            wrappingChannelSynchronously: childChannel
+          )
        }
-    } catch {
-      try? await eventLoopGroup.shutdownGracefully()
-      throw error
-    }
-  }
+      }

-  func run() async throws {
    try await withThrowingDiscardingTaskGroup { group in
      try await serverChannel.executeThenClose { serverInbound in
        for try await clientChannel in serverInbound {
@@ -75,13 +62,7 @@ class ControlSocket {

        self.logger.info("running control socket proxy")

-        // Duplicate the connection's file descriptor
-        //
-        // This way VZVirtioSocketConnection and NIO won't race to close the same descriptor,
-        // which may result in "tart run" crashing because of NIO's fatal assertion on EBADF.
-        let vmSocket = try duplicateAndCloseConnection(vmConnection)
-
-        let vmChannel = try await ClientBootstrap(group: eventLoopGroup).withConnectedSocket(vmSocket) { childChannel in
+        let vmChannel = try await ClientBootstrap(group: eventLoopGroup).withConnectedSocket(vmConnection.fileDescriptor) { childChannel in
          childChannel.eventLoop.makeCompletedFuture {
            try NIOAsyncChannel<ByteBuffer, ByteBuffer>(
              wrappingChannelSynchronously: childChannel
@@ -113,15 +94,4 @@ class ControlSocket {
      }
    }
  }
-
-  private func duplicateAndCloseConnection(_ connection: VZVirtioSocketConnection) throws -> CInt {
-    defer { connection.close() }
-
-    let fd = fcntl(connection.fileDescriptor, F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC, 0)
-    guard fd >= 0 else {
-      throw Errno(rawValue: errno)
-    }
-
-    return fd
-  }
 }
@@ -1,304 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import Virtualization
-
-#if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-  import DiskImageKit
-#endif
-
-/// The logical block layout exposed by a disk image.
-struct DiskImageBlockLayout {
-  let blockSize: UInt64
-  let blockCount: UInt64
-}
-
-enum DiskImageStackError: Error, Equatable, CustomStringConvertible {
-  case unavailable
-  case writableOverlayAlreadyExists(URL)
-  case writableOverlayMissing(URL)
-  case invalidBlockLayout(String)
-  case invalidDiskImage(URL, String)
-
-  var description: String {
-    switch self {
-    case .unavailable:
-      "stacked disks require DiskImageKit on macOS 27 or newer"
-    case .writableOverlayAlreadyExists(let url):
-      "writable overlay already exists: \(url.path)"
-    case .writableOverlayMissing(let url):
-      "writable overlay is missing: \(url.path)"
-    case .invalidBlockLayout(let reason):
-      reason
-    case .invalidDiskImage(let url, let reason):
-      "\(reason): \(url.path)"
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-struct DiskImageStack {
-  /// DiskImageKit-ready paths and block layout after Tart disk chunks have been
-  /// reconstructed into complete immutable files. The writable overlay stays
-  /// private to one VM.
-  let baseURL: URL
-  let baseFormat: DiskImageFormat
-  let immutableOverlayURLs: [URL]
-  let writableOverlayURL: URL
-  let blockSize: UInt64
-  let blockCount: UInt64
-
-  static var isSupported: Bool {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        return true
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    return false
-  }
-
-  static func requireSupport() throws {
-    guard isSupported else {
-      throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-    }
-  }
-
-  /// Reads a disk image's current block layout without resolving or validating a
-  /// whole stack. This is used for the VM's private writable overlay, whose
-  /// size may be newer than the pinned immutable parent manifest.
-  static func diskImageBlockLayout(at url: URL) throws -> DiskImageBlockLayout {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        let image = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: url, mode: .readOnly))
-        return DiskImageBlockLayout(
-          blockSize: UInt64(image.blockSize.rawValue),
-          blockCount: UInt64(image.blockCount)
-        )
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-  }
-
-  static func baseBlockLayout(
-    at url: URL,
-    expectedFormat: DiskImageFormat
-  ) throws -> DiskImageBlockLayout {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        let image = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: url, mode: .readOnly))
-        try validateBase(image, at: url, expectedFormat: expectedFormat)
-
-        return DiskImageBlockLayout(
-          blockSize: UInt64(image.blockSize.rawValue),
-          blockCount: UInt64(image.blockCount)
-        )
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-  }
-
-  func createWritableOverlay() throws {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        try createWritableOverlayWithDiskImageKit()
-        return
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-  }
-
-  func copyWritableOverlay(to destinationURL: URL) throws {
-    guard !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: destinationURL.path) else {
-      throw DiskImageStackError.writableOverlayAlreadyExists(destinationURL)
-    }
-
-    try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: writableOverlayURL, to: destinationURL)
-  }
-
-  func makeAttachment(
-    readOnly: Bool = false,
-    cachingMode: VZDiskImageCachingMode = .automatic,
-    synchronizationMode: VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode = .full
-  ) throws -> VZStorageDeviceAttachment {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        return try attachmentWithDiskImageKit(
-          readOnly: readOnly,
-          cachingMode: cachingMode,
-          synchronizationMode: synchronizationMode
-        )
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-  }
-
-  func growWritableOverlay(toBlockCount blockCount: UInt64) throws {
-    #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-      if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-        try growWritableOverlayWithDiskImageKit(toBlockCount: blockCount)
-        return
-      }
-    #endif
-
-    throw DiskImageStackError.unavailable
-  }
-
-  #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func createWritableOverlayWithDiskImageKit() throws {
-      guard !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: writableOverlayURL.path) else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.writableOverlayAlreadyExists(writableOverlayURL)
-      }
-
-      let parent = try validatedParentImage()
-      let stackedImage = try parent.appending(.asifLayer(url: writableOverlayURL, type: .overlay))
-      try validateAppendedOverlay(stackedImage, at: writableOverlayURL)
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func attachmentWithDiskImageKit(
-      readOnly: Bool,
-      cachingMode: VZDiskImageCachingMode,
-      synchronizationMode: VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode
-    ) throws -> VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment {
-      guard FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: writableOverlayURL.path) else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.writableOverlayMissing(writableOverlayURL)
-      }
-
-      let parent = try validatedParentImage()
-      let writableOverlay = try openOverlay(
-        at: writableOverlayURL,
-        mode: readOnly ? .readOnly : .readWrite
-      )
-      let stackedImage = try append(writableOverlay, to: parent, at: writableOverlayURL)
-      try validateAppendedOverlay(stackedImage, at: writableOverlayURL)
-
-      return try VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment(
-        diskImage: stackedImage,
-        cachingMode: cachingMode,
-        synchronizationMode: synchronizationMode
-      )
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func growWritableOverlayWithDiskImageKit(toBlockCount blockCount: UInt64) throws {
-      guard blockCount > 0, let desiredBlockCount = Int(exactly: blockCount) else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("invalid stacked disk block count \(blockCount)")
-      }
-
-      let parent = try validatedParentImage()
-      let overlay = try openOverlay(
-        at: writableOverlayURL,
-        mode: .readWrite
-      )
-      let currentBlockCount = overlay.blockCount
-      let stackedImage = try append(overlay, to: parent, at: writableOverlayURL)
-      try validateAppendedOverlay(stackedImage, at: writableOverlayURL)
-      guard desiredBlockCount >= currentBlockCount else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(writableOverlayURL, "ASIF overlay block count shrinks the stacked disk")
-      }
-
-      guard let writableOverlay = stackedImage.layers.last else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(writableOverlayURL, "disk image must be an ASIF overlay")
-      }
-      if desiredBlockCount > currentBlockCount {
-        try writableOverlay.truncate(blockCount: desiredBlockCount)
-      }
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func validatedParentImage() throws -> DiskImage {
-      let expectedBlockSize = try diskImageBlockSize(blockSize)
-      guard blockCount > 0, let expectedBlockCount = Int(exactly: blockCount) else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("invalid stacked disk block count \(blockCount)")
-      }
-
-      let baseImage = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: baseURL, mode: .readOnly))
-      try Self.validateBase(baseImage, at: baseURL, expectedFormat: baseFormat)
-
-      var image = baseImage
-
-      for overlayURL in immutableOverlayURLs {
-        let openedOverlay = try openOverlay(
-          at: overlayURL,
-          mode: .readOnly
-        )
-        let stackedImage = try append(openedOverlay, to: image, at: overlayURL)
-        try validateAppendedOverlay(stackedImage, at: overlayURL)
-        image = stackedImage
-      }
-
-      guard image.blockSize == expectedBlockSize else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("immutable disk stack does not match manifest block size")
-      }
-      guard image.blockCount == expectedBlockCount else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("immutable disk stack does not match manifest block count")
-      }
-
-      return image
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private static func validateBase(
-      _ image: DiskImage,
-      at url: URL,
-      expectedFormat: DiskImageFormat
-    ) throws {
-      let matchesFormat = switch expectedFormat {
-      case .raw:
-        image.format == .raw
-      case .asif:
-        image.format == .asif
-      }
-      guard matchesFormat else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "base disk format does not match")
-      }
-      guard image.layerType == nil, image.parentUUID == nil else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "base disk must not be an overlay")
-      }
-      if expectedFormat == .asif && image.layerUUID == nil {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "ASIF base disk is missing a UUID")
-      }
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func openOverlay(
-      at url: URL,
-      mode: OpenConfiguration.Mode
-    ) throws -> DiskImage {
-      let image = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: url, mode: mode))
-      guard image.format == .asif else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "overlay must use ASIF format")
-      }
-
-      return image
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func append(_ overlay: DiskImage, to parent: DiskImage, at url: URL) throws -> any StackedImage {
-      do {
-        return try parent.appending(overlay)
-      } catch is IncompatibleStackingError {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "ASIF overlay is incompatible with its parent")
-      }
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func validateAppendedOverlay(_ image: any StackedImage, at url: URL) throws {
-      guard image.layers.last?.layerType == .overlay else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidDiskImage(url, "disk image must be an ASIF overlay")
-      }
-    }
-
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func diskImageBlockSize(_ value: UInt64) throws -> DiskImage.BlockSize {
-      guard let intValue = Int(exactly: value), let blockSize = DiskImage.BlockSize(rawValue: intValue) else {
-        throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("unsupported stacked disk block size \(value)")
-      }
-
-      return blockSize
-    }
-  #endif
-}
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-
-struct HumanReadableByteCount: Encodable, CustomStringConvertible {
-  private let byteCount: Int?
-  private let jsonValue: any Encodable
-
-  init<JSONValue: Encodable>(_ byteCount: Int?, encodedAs: (Int) -> JSONValue) {
-    self.byteCount = byteCount
-    self.jsonValue = byteCount.map(encodedAs)
-  }
-
-  var description: String {
-    guard let byteCount else {
-      return "-"
-    }
-
-    let formatter = MeasurementFormatter()
-    formatter.unitOptions = .naturalScale
-    formatter.unitStyle = .medium
-    formatter.numberFormatter.maximumFractionDigits = 0
-
-    return formatter.string(
-      from: Measurement(value: Double(byteCount), unit: UnitInformationStorage.bytes)
-    )
-  }
-
-  func encode(to encoder: Encoder) throws {
-    try jsonValue.encode(to: encoder)
-  }
-}
@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-import GRPC
-import NIOPosix
-
-/// Connects to a guest agent's gRPC endpoint over a VM's control socket, runs
-/// `body` with the resulting channel, and closes the channel afterwards on both
-/// the success and error paths.
-///
-/// The connection uses the process-wide singleton event loop group, which must
-/// not be shut down, so there is no group lifecycle to manage here.
-func withGuestAgentChannel<T>(
-  unixDomainSocketPath socketPath: String,
-  _ body: (GRPCChannel) async throws -> T
-) async throws -> T {
-  let channel = try GRPCChannelPool.with(
-    target: .unixDomainSocket(socketPath),
-    transportSecurity: .plaintext,
-    eventLoopGroup: .singletonMultiThreadedEventLoopGroup,
-  )
-
-  do {
-    let result = try await body(channel)
-    try await channel.close().get()
-    return result
-  } catch {
-    try? await channel.close().get()
-    throw error
-  }
-}
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import Foundation
 import Network
+import NIOPosix
 import GRPC
 import Cirruslabs_TartGuestAgent_Apple_Swift
 import Cirruslabs_TartGuestAgent_Grpc_Swift
@@ -8,21 +9,34 @@ class AgentResolver {
  static func ResolveIP(_ controlSocketPath: String) async throws -> IPv4Address? {
    do {
      return try await resolveIP(controlSocketPath)
-    } catch is GRPCConnectionPoolError {
+    } catch let error as GRPCConnectionPoolError {
      return nil
    }
  }

  private static func resolveIP(_ controlSocketPath: String) async throws -> IPv4Address? {
-    try await withGuestAgentChannel(unixDomainSocketPath: controlSocketPath) { channel in
-      // Invoke ResolveIP() gRPC method
-      let callOptions = CallOptions(timeLimit: .timeout(.seconds(1)))
-      let agentAsyncClient = AgentAsyncClient(channel: channel)
-      let resolveIPCall = agentAsyncClient.makeResolveIpCall(ResolveIPRequest(), callOptions: callOptions)
-
-      let response = try await resolveIPCall.response
-
-      return IPv4Address(response.ip)
+    // Create a gRPC channel connected to the VM's control socket
+    let group = MultiThreadedEventLoopGroup(numberOfThreads: 1)
+    defer {
+      try! group.syncShutdownGracefully()
    }
+
+    let channel = try GRPCChannelPool.with(
+      target: .unixDomainSocket(controlSocketPath),
+      transportSecurity: .plaintext,
+      eventLoopGroup: group,
+    )
+    defer {
+      try! channel.close().wait()
+    }
+
+    // Invoke ResolveIP() gRPC method
+    let callOptions = CallOptions(timeLimit: .timeout(.seconds(1)))
+    let agentAsyncClient = AgentAsyncClient(channel: channel)
+    let resolveIPCall = agentAsyncClient.makeResolveIpCall(ResolveIPRequest(), callOptions: callOptions)
+
+    let response = try await resolveIPCall.response
+
+    return IPv4Address(response.ip)
  }
 }
@@ -11,22 +11,12 @@ enum SoftnetError: Error {

 class Softnet: Network {
  private let process = Process()
-  private var controlFileHandle: FileHandle?
  private var monitorTask: Task<Void, Error>? = nil
  private let monitorTaskFinished = ManagedAtomic<Bool>(false)

  let vmFD: Int32

-  init(vmMACAddress: String, extraArguments: [String] = [], controlFD: Int32? = nil) throws {
-    if let controlFD = controlFD {
-      guard controlFD > STDERR_FILENO else {
-        throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor must be greater than 2")
-      }
-
-      controlFileHandle = FileHandle(fileDescriptor: controlFD, closeOnDealloc: true)
-      try Self.validateControlFD(controlFD)
-    }
-
+  init(vmMACAddress: String, extraArguments: [String] = []) throws {
    let fds = UnsafeMutablePointer<Int32>.allocate(capacity: MemoryLayout<Int>.stride * 2)

    let ret = socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_DGRAM, 0, fds)
@@ -43,44 +33,6 @@ class Softnet: Network {
    process.executableURL = try Self.softnetExecutableURL()
    process.arguments = ["--vm-fd", String(STDIN_FILENO), "--vm-mac-address", vmMACAddress] + extraArguments
    process.standardInput = FileHandle(fileDescriptor: softnetFD, closeOnDealloc: false)
-
-    if let controlFileHandle = controlFileHandle {
-      process.arguments! += ["--control-fd", String(STDOUT_FILENO)]
-      process.standardOutput = controlFileHandle
-    }
-  }
-
-  static func validateControlFD(_ fd: Int32) throws {
-    guard fd > STDERR_FILENO else {
-      throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor must be greater than 2")
-    }
-
-    var socketType: Int32 = 0
-    var socketTypeLength = socklen_t(MemoryLayout<Int32>.size)
-    guard getsockopt(fd, SOL_SOCKET, SO_TYPE, &socketType, &socketTypeLength) == 0 else {
-      let details = Errno(rawValue: CInt(errno))
-      throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor is not a socket: \(details)")
-    }
-
-    guard socketType == SOCK_STREAM else {
-      throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor must be a Unix stream socket")
-    }
-
-    var peerAddress = sockaddr_storage()
-    var peerAddressLength = socklen_t(MemoryLayout<sockaddr_storage>.size)
-    let result = withUnsafeMutablePointer(to: &peerAddress) { pointer in
-      pointer.withMemoryRebound(to: sockaddr.self, capacity: 1) {
-        getpeername(fd, $0, &peerAddressLength)
-      }
-    }
-    guard result == 0 else {
-      let details = Errno(rawValue: CInt(errno))
-      throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor is not connected: \(details)")
-    }
-
-    guard peerAddress.ss_family == sa_family_t(AF_UNIX) else {
-      throw SoftnetError.InitializationFailed(why: "Softnet control file descriptor must be a Unix stream socket")
-    }
  }

  static func softnetExecutableURL() throws -> URL {
@@ -94,8 +46,6 @@ class Softnet: Network {
  }

  func run(_ sema: AsyncSemaphore) throws {
-    defer { try? controlFileHandle?.close() }
-
    try process.run()

    monitorTask = Task {
@@ -7,8 +7,6 @@ enum DigestError: Error {
 }

 class Digest {
-  private static let fileBufferSize = 4 * 1024 * 1024
-
  var hash: SHA256 = SHA256()

  func update(_ data: Data) {
@@ -24,10 +22,7 @@ class Digest {
  }

  static func hash(_ url: URL) throws -> String {
-    let file = try FileHandle(forReadingFrom: url)
-    defer { try? file.close() }
-
-    return try hashContents(from: file)
+    hash(try Data(contentsOf: url))
  }

  static func hash(_ url: URL, offset: UInt64, size: UInt64) throws -> String {
@@ -41,53 +36,20 @@ class Digest {
      throw DigestError.InvalidOffset
    }

-    if size > fileSize - offset {
+    if (offset + size) > fileSize {
      throw DigestError.InvalidSize
    }

-    // Read the requested range incrementally and calculate its digest.
+    // Read a chunk of size ``size`` at offset ``offset``
+    // and calculate it's digest
    let fh = try FileHandle(forReadingFrom: url)
-    defer { try? fh.close() }
+    defer { try! fh.close() }

    try fh.seek(toOffset: offset)

-    return try hashContents(from: fh, size: size)
-  }
+    let data = try fh.read(upToCount: Int(size))!

-  /// Streams a file into SHA-256 while keeping Foundation's temporary read
-  /// buffers scoped to one chunk.
-  private static func hashContents(from file: FileHandle, size: UInt64? = nil) throws -> String {
-    let digest = Digest()
-    var remaining = size
-
-    while remaining.map({ $0 > 0 }) ?? true {
-      let didRead = try autoreleasepool { () throws -> Bool in
-        let count = remaining.map {
-          Int(min(UInt64(fileBufferSize), $0))
-        } ?? fileBufferSize
-
-        guard let data = try file.read(upToCount: count), !data.isEmpty else {
-          if remaining != nil {
-            throw DigestError.InvalidSize
-          }
-
-          return false
-        }
-
-        digest.update(data)
-        if let bytesRemaining = remaining {
-          remaining = bytesRemaining - UInt64(data.count)
-        }
-
-        return true
-      }
-
-      if !didRead {
-        break
-      }
-    }
-
-    return digest.finalize()
+    return hash(data)
  }
 }

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 import Foundation

 protocol Disk {
-  static func push(diskURL: URL, mediaType: String, registry: Registry, chunkSizeMb: Int, concurrency: UInt, progress: Progress) async throws -> [OCIManifestLayer]
+  static func push(diskURL: URL, registry: Registry, chunkSizeMb: Int, concurrency: UInt, progress: Progress) async throws -> [OCIManifestLayer]
  static func pull(registry: Registry, diskLayers: [OCIManifestLayer], diskURL: URL, concurrency: UInt, progress: Progress, localLayerCache: LocalLayerCache?, deduplicate: Bool) async throws
 }
@@ -22,14 +22,7 @@ class DiskV2: Disk {
  private static let holeGranularityBytes = 4 * 1024 * 1024
  private static let zeroChunk = Data(count: holeGranularityBytes)

-  static func push(
-    diskURL: URL,
-    mediaType: String,
-    registry: Registry,
-    chunkSizeMb: Int,
-    concurrency: UInt,
-    progress: Progress
-  ) async throws -> [OCIManifestLayer] {
+  static func push(diskURL: URL, registry: Registry, chunkSizeMb: Int, concurrency: UInt, progress: Progress) async throws -> [OCIManifestLayer] {
    var pushedLayers: [(index: Int, pushedLayer: OCIManifestLayer)] = []

    // Open the disk file
@@ -70,7 +63,7 @@ class DiskV2: Disk {
          progress.completedUnitCount += Int64(data.count)

          return (index, OCIManifestLayer(
-            mediaType: mediaType,
+            mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
            size: compressedData.count,
            digest: compressedDataDigest,
            uncompressedSize: UInt64(data.count),
@@ -7,13 +7,11 @@ let ociConfigMediaType = "application/vnd.oci.image.config.v1+json"
 // Layer media types
 let configMediaType = "application/vnd.cirruslabs.tart.config.v1"
 let diskV2MediaType = "application/vnd.cirruslabs.tart.disk.v2"
-let asifOverlayMediaType = "application/vnd.cirruslabs.tart.disk.asif.overlay.v1"
 let nvramMediaType = "application/vnd.cirruslabs.tart.nvram.v1"

 // Manifest annotations
 let uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.uncompressed-disk-size"
 let uploadTimeAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.upload-time"
-let diskBlockSizeAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.disk.block-size"

 // Manifest labels
 let diskFormatLabel = "org.cirruslabs.tart.disk.format"
@@ -21,51 +19,6 @@ let diskFormatLabel = "org.cirruslabs.tart.disk.format"
 // Layer annotations
 let uncompressedSizeAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.uncompressed-size"
 let uncompressedContentDigestAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.uncompressed-content-digest"
-let diskFileContentDigestAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.disk-file-content-digest"
-let diskFileChunkCountAnnotation = "org.cirruslabs.tart.disk-file-chunk-count"
-
-/// The OCI-layer descriptors whose Tart disk chunks reconstruct one complete
-/// base disk or ASIF overlay.
-struct TartDiskFileGroup: Equatable {
-  enum Kind: Equatable {
-    case base
-    case asifOverlay
-  }
-
-  var kind: Kind
-  var chunks: [OCIManifestLayer]
-  /// Whole reconstructed-file digest. Existing flat manifests do not have
-  /// this until a macOS 27 clone normalizes its local manifest copy.
-  var contentDigest: String?
-
-  /// Expected size of the complete disk file reconstructed from these chunks.
-  func uncompressedSize() -> UInt64? {
-    var result: UInt64 = 0
-    for chunk in chunks {
-      guard let size = chunk.uncompressedSize() else {
-        return nil
-      }
-
-      let addition = result.addingReportingOverflow(size)
-      guard !addition.overflow else {
-        return nil
-      }
-      result = addition.partialValue
-    }
-
-    return result
-  }
-}
-
-enum TartDiskRepresentation: Equatable {
-  case flat(base: TartDiskFileGroup)
-  case stacked(base: TartDiskFileGroup, overlays: [TartDiskFileGroup])
-}
-
-enum OCIManifestValidationError: Error, Equatable {
-  case invalidLayout(String)
-  case invalidDiskMetadata(String)
-}

 struct OCIManifest: Codable, Equatable {
  var schemaVersion: Int = 2
@@ -110,116 +63,6 @@ struct OCIManifest: Codable, Equatable {

    return UInt64(value)
  }
-
-  /// Parse Tart's canonical `config -> disk descriptors -> NVRAM` order.
-  /// A stacked image has a leading `disk.v2` base run followed by one or more
-  /// contiguous ASIF overlay chunk groups.
-  func tartDiskRepresentation() throws -> TartDiskRepresentation {
-    guard layers.filter({ $0.mediaType == configMediaType }).count == 1 else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("manifest must contain exactly one Tart config descriptor")
-    }
-    guard layers.filter({ $0.mediaType == nvramMediaType }).count == 1 else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("manifest must contain exactly one NVRAM descriptor")
-    }
-    guard layers.first?.mediaType == configMediaType,
-          layers.last?.mediaType == nvramMediaType else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("descriptors must be ordered as config, disk chunks, then NVRAM")
-    }
-
-    let diskDescriptors = Array(layers.dropFirst().dropLast())
-    guard !diskDescriptors.isEmpty else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("manifest has no disk chunks")
-    }
-
-    let baseChunkCount = diskDescriptors.prefix { $0.mediaType == diskV2MediaType }.count
-    guard baseChunkCount > 0 else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("disk chunks must start with a disk.v2 base")
-    }
-
-    let baseChunks = Array(diskDescriptors.prefix(baseChunkCount))
-    try validateChunkMetadata(baseChunks)
-    guard baseChunks.first?.diskFileChunkCount() == nil,
-          baseChunks.dropFirst().allSatisfy({
-            $0.diskFileContentDigest() == nil && $0.diskFileChunkCount() == nil
-          }) else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("base disk metadata must appear only on its first chunk")
-    }
-    let base = TartDiskFileGroup(
-      kind: .base,
-      chunks: baseChunks,
-      contentDigest: baseChunks.first?.diskFileContentDigest()
-    )
-
-    guard baseChunkCount < diskDescriptors.count else {
-      return .flat(base: base)
-    }
-
-    guard base.contentDigest != nil else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("a stacked base disk needs a whole-file content digest")
-    }
-
-    var overlays: [TartDiskFileGroup] = []
-    var index = baseChunkCount
-
-    while index < diskDescriptors.count {
-      let first = diskDescriptors[index]
-      guard first.mediaType == asifOverlayMediaType else {
-        throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("unsupported disk chunk media type: \(first.mediaType)")
-      }
-      guard let contentDigest = first.diskFileContentDigest(),
-            let chunkCount = first.diskFileChunkCount() else {
-        throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("an ASIF overlay needs a content digest and chunk count")
-      }
-      guard chunkCount > 0, index + chunkCount <= diskDescriptors.count else {
-        throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("ASIF overlay chunk count is invalid")
-      }
-
-      let chunks = Array(diskDescriptors[index..<(index + chunkCount)])
-      guard chunks.allSatisfy({ $0.mediaType == asifOverlayMediaType }) else {
-        throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("ASIF overlay chunks must be contiguous")
-      }
-      guard chunks.dropFirst().allSatisfy({ $0.diskFileContentDigest() == nil && $0.diskFileChunkCount() == nil }) else {
-        throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("ASIF overlay metadata must appear only on its first chunk")
-      }
-      try validateChunkMetadata(chunks)
-
-      overlays.append(TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .asifOverlay, chunks: chunks, contentDigest: contentDigest))
-      index += chunkCount
-    }
-
-    return .stacked(base: base, overlays: overlays)
-  }
-
-  /// Returns content-store digests needed to reconstruct this disk stack.
-  func diskContentDigests() throws -> [String] {
-    switch try tartDiskRepresentation() {
-    case .flat(let base):
-      return base.contentDigest.map { [$0] } ?? []
-    case .stacked(let base, let overlays):
-      return ([base] + overlays).compactMap(\.contentDigest)
-    }
-  }
-
-  private func validateChunkMetadata(_ chunks: [OCIManifestLayer]) throws {
-    guard chunks.allSatisfy({ $0.uncompressedSize() != nil && $0.uncompressedContentDigest() != nil }) else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("disk chunks need uncompressed size and content digest")
-    }
-  }
-
-  func diskBlockSize() -> UInt64? {
-    annotations?[diskBlockSizeAnnotation].flatMap(UInt64.init)
-  }
-
-  func diskBlockCount() -> UInt64? {
-    guard let diskSize = uncompressedDiskSize(),
-          let blockSize = diskBlockSize(),
-          blockSize > 0,
-          diskSize.isMultiple(of: blockSize) else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    return diskSize / blockSize
-  }
 }

 struct OCIConfig: Codable {
@@ -278,14 +121,6 @@ struct OCIManifestLayer: Codable, Equatable, Hashable {
    annotations?[uncompressedContentDigestAnnotation]
  }

-  func diskFileContentDigest() -> String? {
-    annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation]
-  }
-
-  func diskFileChunkCount() -> Int? {
-    annotations?[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation].flatMap(Int.init)
-  }
-
  static func == (lhs: Self, rhs: Self) -> Bool {
    return lhs.digest == rhs.digest
  }
@@ -111,24 +111,27 @@ struct TokenResponse: Decodable, Authentication {
 }

 class Registry {
-  let baseURL: URL
+  private let baseURL: URL
  let namespace: String
  let credentialsProviders: [CredentialsProvider]
  let authenticationKeeper = AuthenticationKeeper()

-  // Host with an optional port (e.g. "127.0.0.1:5000"), which is used for naming
-  // and credentials lookup. For Docker Hub it stays "docker.io", while baseURL
-  // points to registry-1.docker.io.
-  let host: String?
+  var host: String? {
+    guard let host = baseURL.host else { return nil }
+
+    if let port = baseURL.port {
+      return "\(host):\(port)"
+    }
+
+    return host
+  }

  init(baseURL: URL,
       namespace: String,
-       host: String? = nil,
       credentialsProviders: [CredentialsProvider] = [EnvironmentCredentialsProvider(), DockerConfigCredentialsProvider(), KeychainCredentialsProvider()]
  ) throws {
    self.baseURL = baseURL
    self.namespace = namespace
-    self.host = host ?? Registry.hostWithPort(of: baseURL)
    self.credentialsProviders = credentialsProviders
  }

@@ -139,9 +142,9 @@ class Registry {
    credentialsProviders: [CredentialsProvider] = [EnvironmentCredentialsProvider(), DockerConfigCredentialsProvider(), KeychainCredentialsProvider()]
  ) throws {
    let proto = insecure ? "http" : "https"
-    var baseURLComponents = URLComponents(string: proto + "://" + host + "/v2/")!
+    let baseURLComponents = URLComponents(string: proto + "://" + host + "/v2/")!

-    guard var baseURL = baseURLComponents.url else {
+    guard let baseURL = baseURLComponents.url else {
      var hint = ""

      if host.hasPrefix("http://") || host.hasPrefix("https://") {
@@ -151,33 +154,7 @@ class Registry {
      throw RuntimeError.ImproperlyFormattedHost(host, hint)
    }

-    // Naming and credentials lookup use the host and port of the original URL,
-    // so it's "docker.io" for Docker Hub and "127.0.0.1:5000" for "127.0.0.1:05000"
-    let normalizedHost = Registry.hostWithPort(of: baseURL)
-
-    // Docker Hub serves its registry API from registry-1.docker.io, while docker.io,
-    // the host used in image names, redirects to Docker's website. URLSession follows
-    // these redirects, so we'd get an HTML page with HTTP 200 instead of an API
-    // response, which breaks pushing, pulling and "tart login" credentials validation.
-    //
-    // Host names are case insensitive, and only the host is replaced,
-    // so an explicit port like in "Docker.IO:443" is kept.
-    if baseURLComponents.host?.lowercased() == "docker.io" {
-      baseURLComponents.host = "registry-1.docker.io"
-      baseURL = baseURLComponents.url!
-    }
-
-    try self.init(baseURL: baseURL, namespace: namespace, host: normalizedHost, credentialsProviders: credentialsProviders)
-  }
-
-  private static func hostWithPort(of url: URL) -> String? {
-    guard let host = url.host else { return nil }
-
-    if let port = url.port {
-      return "\(host):\(port)"
-    }
-
-    return host
+    try self.init(baseURL: baseURL, namespace: namespace, credentialsProviders: credentialsProviders)
  }

  func ping() async throws {
@@ -444,8 +421,12 @@ class Registry {
    await authenticationKeeper.set(try TokenResponse.parse(fromData: data))
  }

-  func lookupCredentials() throws -> (String, String)? {
-    let host = self.host!
+  private func lookupCredentials() throws -> (String, String)? {
+    var host = baseURL.host!
+
+    if let port = baseURL.port {
+      host += ":\(port)"
+    }

    for provider in credentialsProviders {
      do {
@@ -104,42 +104,40 @@ struct UnsupportedHostOSError: Error, CustomStringConvertible {
      return result
    }

-    func keyboards(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
-      var devices: [VZKeyboardConfiguration] = noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration()]
+    func keyboards() -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
      if #available(macOS 14, *) {
        // Mac keyboard is only supported by guests starting with macOS Ventura
-        devices.append(VZMacKeyboardConfiguration())
+        return [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration(), VZMacKeyboardConfiguration()]
+      } else {
+        return [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration()]
      }
-      return devices
    }

-    func keyboardsSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
+    func keyboardsSuspendable() -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
      if #available(macOS 14, *) {
        return [VZMacKeyboardConfiguration()]
      } else {
        // fallback to the regular configuration
-        return keyboards(noUSB: noUSB)
+        return keyboards()
      }
    }

-    func pointingDevices(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
+    func pointingDevices() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
      // Trackpad is only supported by guests starting with macOS Ventura
-      var devices: [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] = noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
-      devices.append(VZMacTrackpadConfiguration())
-      return devices
+      [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration(), VZMacTrackpadConfiguration()]
    }

-    func pointingDevicesSimplified(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
+    func pointingDevicesSimplified() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
      // Only include the USB pointing device, not the trackpad
-      return noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
+      return [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
    }

-    func pointingDevicesSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
+    func pointingDevicesSuspendable() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
      if #available(macOS 14, *) {
        return [VZMacTrackpadConfiguration()]
      } else {
        // fallback to the regular configuration
-        return pointingDevices(noUSB: noUSB)
+        return pointingDevices()
      }
    }
  }
@@ -35,16 +35,16 @@ struct Linux: Platform {
    return result
  }

-  func keyboards(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
-    noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration()]
+  func keyboards() -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
+    [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration()]
  }

-  func pointingDevices(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
-    noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
+  func pointingDevices() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
+    [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
  }

-  func pointingDevicesSimplified(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
+  func pointingDevicesSimplified() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
    // Linux doesn't support trackpad, so just return the regular pointing devices
-    return pointingDevices(noUSB: noUSB)
+    return pointingDevices()
  }
 }
@@ -5,12 +5,12 @@ protocol Platform: Codable {
  func bootLoader(nvramURL: URL) throws -> VZBootLoader
  func platform(nvramURL: URL, needsNestedVirtualization: Bool) throws -> VZPlatformConfiguration
  func graphicsDevice(vmConfig: VMConfig) -> VZGraphicsDeviceConfiguration
-  func keyboards(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration]
-  func pointingDevices(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
-  func pointingDevicesSimplified(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
+  func keyboards() -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration]
+  func pointingDevices() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
+  func pointingDevicesSimplified() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
 }

 protocol PlatformSuspendable: Platform {
-  func pointingDevicesSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
-  func keyboardsSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration]
+  func pointingDevicesSuspendable() -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration]
+  func keyboardsSuspendable() -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration]
 }
@@ -32,159 +32,88 @@ struct Root: AsyncParsableCommand {
      FQN.self,
    ])

-  // Note: main() is intentionally synchronous. Swift's asynchronous main() entry
-  // point implicitly starts an executor that owns the main thread — and since
-  // Swift 6.4 that executor is no longer backed by the Dispatch main queue — so
-  // running an AppKit/SwiftUI run loop nested inside it leaves the main run loop
-  // unable to drain Tasks or DispatchQueue.main, and a VM started via "tart run"
-  // never boots. Keeping main() synchronous lets a command that needs the main
-  // run loop own it at the top level, exactly like a plain SwiftUI app.
-  public static func main() {
+  public static func main() async throws {
    // Add commands that are only available on specific macOS versions
    if #available(macOS 14, *) {
      configuration.subcommands.append(Suspend.self)
    }

-    // Ensure the default SIGINT handler is disabled, otherwise there's a race
-    // between two handlers. We handle cancellation by Ctrl+C ourselves below.
-    signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN)
+    // Ensure the default SIGINT handled is disabled,
+    // otherwise there's a race between two handlers
+    signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN);
+    // Handle cancellation by Ctrl+C ourselves
+    let task = withUnsafeCurrentTask { $0 }!
+    let sigintSrc = DispatchSource.makeSignalSource(signal: SIGINT)
+    sigintSrc.setEventHandler {
+      task.cancel()
+    }
+    sigintSrc.activate()

    // Set line-buffered output for stdout
    setlinebuf(stdout)

-    // Parse the command up-front, synchronously, so we can decide who gets to own
-    // the main thread before any concurrency is involved.
-    //
-    // ParsableCommand isn't Sendable, but we only ever hand it to the single task
-    // spawned below and never touch it again afterwards, so transferring it into
-    // that task is safe.
-    nonisolated(unsafe) let command: ParsableCommand
-    do {
-      command = try parseAsRoot()
-    } catch {
-      exit(withError: error)
-    }
-
-    if let mainThreadCommand = command as? MainThreadCommand {
-      // This command drives a run loop on the main thread, so run it right here,
-      // letting it own the main thread at the top level.
-      MainActor.assumeIsolated {
-        runOnMainThread(mainThreadCommand)
-      }
-    } else {
-      // Every other command is asynchronous and doesn't touch the main thread, so
-      // drive it from a detached task and let the Dispatch main queue keep the
-      // process alive until the command exits.
-      let task = Task.detached {
-        await runInBackground(command)
-      }
-
-      // Handle cancellation by Ctrl+C ourselves
-      let sigintSrc = DispatchSource.makeSignalSource(signal: SIGINT)
-      sigintSrc.setEventHandler {
-        task.cancel()
-      }
-      sigintSrc.activate()
-
-      dispatchMain()
-    }
-  }
-
-  @MainActor
-  private static func runOnMainThread(_ command: MainThreadCommand) {
-    let span = startCommandSpan(for: command)
-    runGarbageCollection(for: command)
+    defer { OTel.shared.flush() }

    do {
-      // Enters the run loop and only returns once the command exits via
-      // Foundation.exit(), so the lines below are a best-effort fallback.
-      try command.runOnMainThread()
-    } catch {
-      handleError(error, span: span)
-    }
+      // Parse command
+      var command = try parseAsRoot()

-    span.end()
-    OTel.shared.flush()
-    Foundation.exit(0)
-  }
+      // Create a root span for the command we're about to run
+      let span = OTel.shared.tracer.spanBuilder(spanName: type(of: command)._commandName).startSpan()
+      defer { span.end() }
+      OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.setActiveSpan(span)

-  private static func runInBackground(_ command: ParsableCommand) async {
-    let span = startCommandSpan(for: command)
-    runGarbageCollection(for: command)
+      // Enrich root command span with command's arguments
+      let commandLineArguments = ProcessInfo.processInfo.arguments.map { argument in
+        AttributeValue.string(argument)
+      }
+      span.setAttribute(key: "Command-line arguments", value: .array(AttributeArray(values: commandLineArguments)))

-    do {
+      // Enrich root command span with Cirrus CI-specific tags
+      if let tags = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["CIRRUS_SENTRY_TAGS"] {
+        for (key, value) in tags.split(separator: ",").compactMap(splitEnvironmentVariable) {
+          span.setAttribute(key: key, value: .string(value))
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Run garbage-collection before each command (shouldn't take too long)
+      if type(of: command) != type(of: Pull()) && type(of: command) != type(of: Clone()){
+        do {
+          try Config().gc()
+        } catch {
+          fputs("Failed to perform garbage collection: \(error)\n", stderr)
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Run command
      if var asyncCommand = command as? AsyncParsableCommand {
        try await asyncCommand.run()
      } else {
-        var command = command
        try command.run()
      }
    } catch {
-      handleError(error, span: span)
-    }
-
-    span.end()
-    OTel.shared.flush()
-    Foundation.exit(0)
-  }
-
-  // Create a root span for the command we're about to run.
-  private static func startCommandSpan(for command: ParsableCommand) -> Span {
-    let span = OTel.shared.tracer.spanBuilder(spanName: type(of: command)._commandName).startSpan()
-    OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.setActiveSpan(span)
-
-    // Enrich root command span with command's arguments
-    let commandLineArguments = ProcessInfo.processInfo.arguments.map { argument in
-      AttributeValue.string(argument)
-    }
-    span.setAttribute(key: "Command-line arguments", value: .array(AttributeArray(values: commandLineArguments)))
-
-    // Enrich root command span with Cirrus CI-specific tags
-    if let tags = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["CIRRUS_SENTRY_TAGS"] {
-      for (key, value) in tags.split(separator: ",").compactMap(splitEnvironmentVariable) {
-        span.setAttribute(key: key, value: .string(value))
+      // Not an error, just a custom exit code from "tart exec"
+      if let execCustomExitCodeError = error as? ExecCustomExitCodeError {
+        OTel.shared.flush()
+        Foundation.exit(execCustomExitCodeError.exitCode)
      }
-    }

-    return span
-  }
+      // Capture the error into OpenTelemetry
+      OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.recordException(error)

-  // Run garbage-collection before each command (shouldn't take too long).
-  private static func runGarbageCollection(for command: ParsableCommand) {
-    if type(of: command) != type(of: Pull()) && type(of: command) != type(of: Clone()) {
-      do {
-        try Config().gc()
-      } catch {
-        fputs("Failed to perform garbage collection: \(error)\n", stderr)
+      // Handle a non-ArgumentParser's exception that requires a specific exit code to be set
+      if let errorWithExitCode = error as? HasExitCode {
+        fputs("\(error)\n", stderr)
+
+        OTel.shared.flush()
+        Foundation.exit(errorWithExitCode.exitCode)
      }
+
+      // Handle any other exception, including ArgumentParser's ones
+      exit(withError: error)
    }
  }

-  private static func handleError(_ error: Error, span: Span) -> Never {
-    // Not an error, just a custom exit code from "tart exec"
-    if let execCustomExitCodeError = error as? ExecCustomExitCodeError {
-      span.end()
-      OTel.shared.flush()
-      Foundation.exit(execCustomExitCodeError.exitCode)
-    }
-
-    // Capture the error into OpenTelemetry
-    OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.recordException(error)
-    span.end()
-
-    // Handle a non-ArgumentParser's exception that requires a specific exit code to be set
-    if let errorWithExitCode = error as? HasExitCode {
-      fputs("\(error)\n", stderr)
-
-      OTel.shared.flush()
-      Foundation.exit(errorWithExitCode.exitCode)
-    }
-
-    // Handle any other exception, including ArgumentParser's ones
-    OTel.shared.flush()
-    exit(withError: error)
-  }
-
  private static func splitEnvironmentVariable(_ tag: String.SubSequence) -> (String, String)? {
    let splits = tag.split(separator: "=", maxSplits: 1)
    if splits.count != 2 {
@@ -194,10 +123,3 @@ struct Root: AsyncParsableCommand {
    return (String(splits[0]), String(splits[1]))
  }
 }
-
-// A command that drives an AppKit/SwiftUI run loop and therefore has to own the
-// main thread at the top level, rather than running inside Swift's asynchronous
-// main() executor. See Root.main() for the rationale.
-protocol MainThreadCommand: ParsableCommand {
-  @MainActor func runOnMainThread() throws
-}
@@ -1,26 +1,5 @@
 import Foundation

-// A fire-and-forget task that reports any thrown error to stderr. An unstructured
-// Task spawned from a synchronous context (a signal handler, a SwiftUI action) has
-// no parent to propagate its error to, so we report it here instead of dropping it.
-struct ErrorReportingTask {
-  let task: Task<Void, Never>
-
-  // Inherit the caller's actor context, exactly as Task.init does. Without this, an
-  // operation written inside a @MainActor function runs on the cooperative pool
-  // rather than the main queue, trapping in callees that assert their queue.
-  @discardableResult
-  init(_ context: String, @_inheritActorContext operation: @escaping @Sendable () async throws -> Void) {
-    task = Task {
-      do {
-        try await operation()
-      } catch {
-        fputs("\(context): \(error)\n", stderr)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-}
-
 extension Collection {
  subscript (safe index: Index) -> Element? {
    indices.contains(index) ? self[index] : nil
@@ -49,7 +49,6 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
       nested: Bool = false,
       audio: Bool = true,
       clipboard: Bool = true,
-       noUSBAccessories: Bool = false,
       sync: VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode = .full,
       caching: VZDiskImageCachingMode? = nil,
       noTrackpad: Bool = false,
@@ -65,7 +64,7 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {

    // Initialize the virtual machine and its configuration
    self.network = network
-    configuration = try Self.craftConfiguration(vmDir: vmDir,
+    configuration = try Self.craftConfiguration(diskURL: vmDir.diskURL,
                                                nvramURL: vmDir.nvramURL, vmConfig: config,
                                                network: network, additionalStorageDevices: additionalStorageDevices,
                                                directorySharingDevices: directorySharingDevices,
@@ -74,7 +73,6 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
                                                nested: nested,
                                                audio: audio,
                                                clipboard: clipboard,
-                                                noUSBAccessories: noUSBAccessories,
                                                sync: sync,
                                                caching: caching,
                                                noTrackpad: noTrackpad,
@@ -198,8 +196,7 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {

      // Initialize the virtual machine and its configuration
      self.network = network
-      configuration = try Self.craftConfiguration(vmDir: vmDir,
-                                                  nvramURL: vmDir.nvramURL,
+      configuration = try Self.craftConfiguration(diskURL: vmDir.diskURL, nvramURL: vmDir.nvramURL,
                                                  vmConfig: config, network: network,
                                                  additionalStorageDevices: additionalStorageDevices,
                                                  directorySharingDevices: directorySharingDevices,
@@ -247,13 +244,13 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
    return try VM(vmDir: vmDir)
  }

-  func start(recovery: Bool, resume shouldResume: Bool, provisioning: GuestProvisioningOptions? = nil) async throws {
+  func start(recovery: Bool, resume shouldResume: Bool) async throws {
    try network.run(sema)

    if shouldResume {
      try await resume()
    } else {
-      try await start(recovery, provisioning: provisioning)
+      try await start(recovery)
    }
  }

@@ -289,15 +286,10 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
  }

  @MainActor
-  private func start(_ recovery: Bool, provisioning: GuestProvisioningOptions? = nil) async throws {
+  private func start(_ recovery: Bool) async throws {
    #if arch(arm64)
      let startOptions = VZMacOSVirtualMachineStartOptions()
      startOptions.startUpFromMacOSRecovery = recovery
-      #if compiler(>=6.4)
-        if let provisioning = provisioning, #available(macOS 27, *) {
-          try startOptions.setGuestProvisioning(provisioning.toVZMacGuestProvisioningOptions())
-        }
-      #endif
      try await virtualMachine.start(options: startOptions)
    #else
      try await virtualMachine.start()
@@ -315,7 +307,7 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
  }

  static func craftConfiguration(
-    vmDir: VMDirectory,
+    diskURL: URL,
    nvramURL: URL,
    vmConfig: VMConfig,
    network: Network = NetworkShared(),
@@ -326,7 +318,6 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
    nested: Bool = false,
    audio: Bool = true,
    clipboard: Bool = true,
-    noUSBAccessories: Bool = false,
    sync: VZDiskImageSynchronizationMode = .full,
    caching: VZDiskImageCachingMode? = nil,
    noTrackpad: Bool = false,
@@ -367,15 +358,25 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
    configuration.audioDevices = [soundDeviceConfiguration]

    // Keyboard and mouse
-    configureInputDevices(
-      configuration,
-      platform: vmConfig.platform,
-      suspendable: suspendable,
-      noUSBAccessories: noUSBAccessories,
-      noTrackpad: noTrackpad,
-      noPointer: noPointer,
-      noKeyboard: noKeyboard
-    )
+    if suspendable, let platformSuspendable = vmConfig.platform.self as? PlatformSuspendable {
+      configuration.keyboards = platformSuspendable.keyboardsSuspendable()
+      configuration.pointingDevices = platformSuspendable.pointingDevicesSuspendable()
+    } else {
+
+      if noKeyboard {
+        configuration.keyboards = []
+      } else {
+        configuration.keyboards = vmConfig.platform.keyboards()
+      }
+
+      if noPointer {
+        configuration.pointingDevices = []
+      } else if noTrackpad {
+        configuration.pointingDevices = vmConfig.platform.pointingDevicesSimplified()
+      } else {
+        configuration.pointingDevices = vmConfig.platform.pointingDevices()
+      }
+    }

    // Networking
    configuration.networkDevices = network.attachments().map {
@@ -398,25 +399,15 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
    }

    // Storage
-    // When not specified, use "cached" caching mode for Linux VMs to prevent file-system corruption[1]
-    //
-    // [1]: https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/pull/675
-    let cachingMode = caching ?? (vmConfig.os == .linux ? .cached : .automatic)
-    let attachment: VZStorageDeviceAttachment
-    if vmDir.isStackedVM {
-      attachment = try vmDir.diskImageStack().makeAttachment(
-        readOnly: false,
-        cachingMode: cachingMode,
-        synchronizationMode: sync
-      )
-    } else {
-      attachment = try VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment(
-        url: vmDir.diskURL,
-        readOnly: false,
-        cachingMode: cachingMode,
-        synchronizationMode: sync
-      )
-    }
+    var attachment = try VZDiskImageStorageDeviceAttachment(
+      url: diskURL,
+      readOnly: false,
+      // When not specified, use "cached" caching mode for Linux VMs to prevent file-system corruption[1]
+      //
+      // [1]: https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/pull/675
+      cachingMode: caching ?? (vmConfig.os == .linux ? .cached : .automatic),
+      synchronizationMode: sync
+    )

    var devices: [VZStorageDeviceConfiguration] = [VZVirtioBlockDeviceConfiguration(attachment: attachment)]
    devices.append(contentsOf: additionalStorageDevices)
@@ -453,31 +444,6 @@ class VM: NSObject, VZVirtualMachineDelegate, ObservableObject {
    return configuration
  }

-  static func configureInputDevices(
-    _ configuration: VZVirtualMachineConfiguration,
-    platform: Platform,
-    suspendable: Bool = false,
-    noUSBAccessories: Bool = false,
-    noTrackpad: Bool = false,
-    noPointer: Bool = false,
-    noKeyboard: Bool = false
-  ) {
-    if suspendable, let platformSuspendable = platform as? PlatformSuspendable {
-      configuration.keyboards = platformSuspendable.keyboardsSuspendable(noUSB: noUSBAccessories)
-      configuration.pointingDevices = platformSuspendable.pointingDevicesSuspendable(noUSB: noUSBAccessories)
-    } else {
-      configuration.keyboards = noKeyboard ? [] : platform.keyboards(noUSB: noUSBAccessories)
-
-      if noPointer {
-        configuration.pointingDevices = []
-      } else if noTrackpad {
-        configuration.pointingDevices = platform.pointingDevicesSimplified(noUSB: noUSBAccessories)
-      } else {
-        configuration.pointingDevices = platform.pointingDevices(noUSB: noUSBAccessories)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
  func guestDidStop(_ virtualMachine: VZVirtualMachine) {
    print("guest has stopped the virtual machine")
    sema.signal()
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ struct VMConfig: Codable {

  func save(toURL: URL) throws {
    let encoder = JSONEncoder()
-    encoder.outputFormatting = [.prettyPrinted, .sortedKeys]
+    encoder.outputFormatting = .prettyPrinted
    try encoder.encode(self).write(to: toURL)
  }

@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import Foundation
 import System
 import AppleArchive

@@ -11,16 +10,6 @@ fileprivate let permissions = FilePermissions(rawValue: 0o644)
 // [2]: https://developer.apple.com/documentation/compression/algorithm/lzfse
 extension VMDirectory {
  func exportToArchive(path: String) throws {
-    let temporaryArchive = try stackedArchiveDirectoryIfNeeded()
-    let archiveSourceURL = temporaryArchive?.vmDirectory.baseURL ?? baseURL
-
-    defer {
-      if let temporaryArchive {
-        try? temporaryArchive.lock.unlock()
-        try? temporaryArchive.vmDirectory.removeFromDisk()
-      }
-    }
-
    guard let fileStream = ArchiveByteStream.fileStream(
      path: FilePath(path),
      mode: .writeOnly,
@@ -60,7 +49,7 @@ extension VMDirectory {
      return
    }

-    try encodeStream.writeDirectoryContents(archiveFrom: FilePath(archiveSourceURL.path), keySet: keySet)
+    try encodeStream.writeDirectoryContents(archiveFrom: FilePath(baseURL.path), keySet: keySet)
  }

  func importFromArchive(path: String) throws {
@@ -103,145 +92,5 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    }

    _ = try ArchiveStream.process(readingFrom: decodeStream, writingTo: extractStream)
-
-    if isStackedVM {
-      try restoreStackedArchive()
-    }
  }
-
-  /// Builds a self-contained staging directory for a stacked archive, if this
-  /// directory currently resolves to a stacked VM or cached image.
-  private func stackedArchiveDirectoryIfNeeded() throws -> (vmDirectory: VMDirectory, lock: FileLock)? {
-    guard isStackedVM || isStackedCachedImage else {
-      return nil
-    }
-    try DiskImageStack.requireSupport()
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    let archiveVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-    let archiveVMDirLock = try FileLock(lockURL: archiveVMDir.baseURL)
-    try archiveVMDirLock.lock()
-
-    do {
-      let stagedSource: (isStackedVM: Bool, contentDigests: [String])? = try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-        () -> (isStackedVM: Bool, contentDigests: [String])? in
-        // OCI tags are mutable symlinks. Resolve one digest record while tag
-        // replacement and cached-image deletion are blocked, then copy every
-        // source-owned file before releasing the lock.
-        let sourceVMDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: baseURL.resolvingSymlinksInPath())
-        guard sourceVMDir.isStackedVM || sourceVMDir.isStackedCachedImage else {
-          throw RuntimeError.ExportFailed("VM changed while preparing export, retry the command")
-        }
-
-        let sourceIsStackedVM = sourceVMDir.isStackedVM
-        let sourceVMLock: PIDLock?
-        if sourceIsStackedVM {
-          let lock = try sourceVMDir.lock()
-          guard try lock.trylock() else {
-            throw RuntimeError.ExportFailed("VM \"\(sourceVMDir.name)\" must be stopped before export")
-          }
-          sourceVMLock = lock
-
-          // Holding the PID lock proves that the VM is not running. A saved
-          // state file is the remaining suspended state that must reject export.
-          guard !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: sourceVMDir.stateURL.path) else {
-            try? lock.unlock()
-            throw RuntimeError.ExportFailed("VM \"\(sourceVMDir.name)\" must be stopped before export")
-          }
-        } else {
-          sourceVMLock = nil
-        }
-        defer { try? sourceVMLock?.unlock() }
-
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: sourceVMDir.configURL, to: archiveVMDir.configURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: sourceVMDir.nvramURL, to: archiveVMDir.nvramURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: sourceVMDir.manifestURL, to: archiveVMDir.manifestURL)
-        if sourceIsStackedVM {
-          try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: sourceVMDir.overlayURL, to: archiveVMDir.overlayURL)
-        }
-
-        return (sourceIsStackedVM, try archiveVMDir.diskContentDigests())
-      }
-
-      guard let stagedSource else {
-        try archiveVMDirLock.unlock()
-        try archiveVMDir.removeFromDisk()
-        return nil
-      }
-
-      if !stagedSource.isStackedVM {
-        try archiveVMDir.diskImageStack().createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-
-      // The staged manifest is now an in-progress reference, so immutable
-      // content remains protected while these potentially large copies run
-      // without holding the global prune lock.
-      for contentDigest in stagedSource.contentDigests {
-        guard let sourceURL = try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest) else {
-          throw RuntimeError.ExportFailed("VM is missing cached disk content \(contentDigest)")
-        }
-
-        let destinationURL = try contentStore.contentURL(
-          for: contentDigest,
-          under: archiveContentStoreURL(in: archiveVMDir)
-        )
-        try FileManager.default.createDirectory(
-          at: destinationURL.deletingLastPathComponent(),
-          withIntermediateDirectories: true
-        )
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: sourceURL, to: destinationURL)
-      }
-
-      return (archiveVMDir, archiveVMDirLock)
-    } catch {
-      try? archiveVMDirLock.unlock()
-      try? archiveVMDir.removeFromDisk()
-      throw error
-    }
-  }
-
-  /// Restores immutable files from an archive into the shared content store,
-  /// removes the archive-only payload, then validates the resulting stack.
-  private func restoreStackedArchive() throws {
-    try DiskImageStack.requireSupport()
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    // The extracted manifest is already a reference; synchronize publication
-    // with a concurrent prune before installing its immutable content.
-    try contentStore.synchronizePublishedReferences()
-    for contentDigest in try diskContentDigests() {
-      if try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest) != nil {
-        continue
-      }
-
-      let archivedContentURL = try contentStore.contentURL(
-        for: contentDigest,
-        under: archiveContentStoreURL(in: self)
-      )
-      guard FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: archivedContentURL.path) else {
-        throw RuntimeError.ImportFailed("archive is missing disk content \(contentDigest)")
-      }
-
-      let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-      do {
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: archivedContentURL, to: temporaryURL)
-        _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-      } catch {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-        throw error
-      }
-    }
-
-    try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: archiveContentStoreURL(in: self))
-    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: stateURL)
-
-    // Opening the attachment validates the reconstructed immutable stack and
-    // imported writable overlay before the VM enters local storage.
-    _ = try diskImageStack().makeAttachment()
-  }
-
-  private func archiveContentStoreURL(in vmDir: VMDirectory) -> URL {
-    vmDir.baseURL.appendingPathComponent("content", isDirectory: true)
-  }
-
 }
@@ -1,142 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-
-extension VMDirectory {
-  /// Returns content-store digests needed to reconstruct this VM's disk stack.
-  func diskContentDigests() throws -> [String] {
-    let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: manifestURL))
-    return try manifest.diskContentDigests()
-  }
-
-  func diskImageStack(contentStore providedStore: ContentStore? = nil) throws -> DiskImageStack {
-    let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: manifestURL))
-    let base: TartDiskFileGroup
-    let overlays: [TartDiskFileGroup]
-
-    switch try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() {
-    case .flat(let pinnedBase) where pinnedBase.contentDigest != nil:
-      base = pinnedBase
-      overlays = []
-    case .stacked(let stackedBase, let stackedOverlays):
-      base = stackedBase
-      overlays = stackedOverlays
-    default:
-      throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM is missing its disk image metadata")
-    }
-    guard let blockSize = manifest.diskBlockSize(),
-          let blockCount = manifest.diskBlockCount() else {
-      throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("disk image metadata is missing block layout")
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try providedStore ?? ContentStore()
-    let baseURL = try diskImageURL(for: base, contentStore: contentStore)
-    let immutableOverlayURLs = try overlays.map { try diskImageURL(for: $0, contentStore: contentStore) }
-    let config = try VMConfig(fromURL: configURL)
-
-    return DiskImageStack(
-      baseURL: baseURL,
-      baseFormat: config.diskFormat,
-      immutableOverlayURLs: immutableOverlayURLs,
-      writableOverlayURL: overlayURL,
-      blockSize: blockSize,
-      blockCount: blockCount
-    )
-  }
-
-  func cloneStacked(
-    to destination: VMDirectory,
-    copyWritableOverlay: Bool,
-    generateMAC: Bool,
-    contentStore: ContentStore? = nil
-  ) throws {
-    let contentStore = try contentStore ?? ContentStore()
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: configURL, to: destination.configURL)
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: nvramURL, to: destination.nvramURL)
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: manifestURL, to: destination.manifestURL)
-
-      if copyWritableOverlay {
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: overlayURL, to: destination.overlayURL)
-      }
-    }
-
-    if !copyWritableOverlay {
-      try destination.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore).createWritableOverlay()
-    }
-
-    if generateMAC {
-      try destination.regenerateMACAddress()
-    }
-  }
-
-  func cloneAsStackedBase(
-    to destination: VMDirectory,
-    generateMAC: Bool,
-    contentStore providedStore: ContentStore? = nil
-  ) throws {
-    let config = try VMConfig(fromURL: configURL)
-    let blockLayout = try DiskImageStack.baseBlockLayout(at: diskURL, expectedFormat: config.diskFormat)
-    let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(diskURL)
-    let contentStore = try providedStore ?? ContentStore()
-
-    var manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: manifestURL))
-    guard case .flat = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() else {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("--stacked cannot use an image that already has a stacked disk")
-    }
-
-    guard let firstDiskIndex = manifest.layers.firstIndex(where: { $0.mediaType == diskV2MediaType }) else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidLayout("manifest must contain at least one disk chunk")
-    }
-
-    var baseAnnotations = manifest.layers[firstDiskIndex].annotations ?? [:]
-    baseAnnotations[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = contentDigest
-    manifest.layers[firstDiskIndex].annotations = baseAnnotations
-    let diskSize = blockLayout.blockSize.multipliedReportingOverflow(by: blockLayout.blockCount)
-    guard !diskSize.overflow else {
-      throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("stacked disk block layout overflows UInt64")
-    }
-    var annotations = manifest.annotations ?? [:]
-    annotations[diskBlockSizeAnnotation] = String(blockLayout.blockSize)
-    annotations[uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation] = String(diskSize.partialValue)
-    manifest.annotations = annotations
-
-    try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: configURL, to: destination.configURL)
-    try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: nvramURL, to: destination.nvramURL)
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: destination.manifestURL)
-    }
-
-    // Publish the temporary VM's manifest before installing the shared base.
-    // Reference-aware pruning includes in-progress manifests, so the content
-    // cannot be collected in the window before this VM is moved into place.
-    if try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest) == nil {
-      let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-      do {
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: diskURL, to: temporaryURL)
-        _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-      } catch {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-        throw error
-      }
-    }
-
-    try destination.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore).createWritableOverlay()
-
-    if generateMAC {
-      try destination.regenerateMACAddress()
-    }
-  }
-
-  private func diskImageURL(for group: TartDiskFileGroup, contentStore: ContentStore) throws -> URL {
-    guard let contentDigest = group.contentDigest else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("stacked disk files need a whole-file content digest")
-    }
-    // Pull/install verifies immutable content before publishing it. Clone and
-    // run use the trusted content-addressed entry without rereading a possibly
-    // very large disk file, matching Tart's existing disk.img behavior.
-    guard let url = try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest) else {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMMissingFiles("VM is missing cached disk content \(contentDigest)")
-    }
-
-    return url
-  }
-}
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ let legacyDiskV1MediaType = "application/vnd.cirruslabs.tart.disk.v1"

 enum OCIError: Error {
  case ShouldBeExactlyOneLayer
+  case ShouldBeAtLeastOneLayer
  case FailedToCreateVmFile
  case LayerIsMissingUncompressedSizeAnnotation
  case LayerIsMissingUncompressedDigestAnnotation
@@ -13,7 +14,7 @@ enum OCIError: Error {

 extension VMDirectory {
  func pullFromRegistry(registry: Registry, manifest: OCIManifest, concurrency: UInt, localLayerCache: LocalLayerCache?, deduplicate: Bool) async throws {
-    // Pull VM's config file layer and store it as the local config file.
+    // Pull VM's config file layer and re-serialize it into a config file
    let configLayers = manifest.layers.filter {
      $0.mediaType == configMediaType
    }
@@ -29,22 +30,17 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    }
    try configFile.close()

-    // Pull VM's disk chunks and decompress them into complete disk files.
+    // Pull VM's disk layers and decompress them into a disk file
    if manifest.layers.contains(where: { $0.mediaType == legacyDiskV1MediaType }) {
      throw RuntimeError.Generic("Pulling OCI images with legacy disk media type \(legacyDiskV1MediaType) is no longer supported, please re-push the image using a current Tart version")
    }

-    let diskRepresentation = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation()
-    let diskChunks: [OCIManifestLayer]
-
-    switch diskRepresentation {
-    case .flat(let base):
-      diskChunks = base.chunks
-    case .stacked(let base, let overlays):
-      diskChunks = base.chunks + overlays.flatMap(\.chunks)
+    let layers = manifest.layers.filter { $0.mediaType == diskV2MediaType }
+    if layers.isEmpty {
+      throw OCIError.ShouldBeAtLeastOneLayer
    }

-    let diskCompressedSize = diskChunks.map { Int64($0.size) }.reduce(0, +)
+    let diskCompressedSize = layers.map { Int64($0.size) }.reduce(0, +)
    OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.setAttribute(
      key: "compressed_disk_size_bytes",
      value: .int(Int(diskCompressedSize))
@@ -57,42 +53,19 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    ProgressObserver(progress).log(defaultLogger)

    do {
-      switch diskRepresentation {
-      case .flat(let base):
-        try await DiskV2.pull(registry: registry, diskLayers: base.chunks, diskURL: diskURL,
-                              concurrency: concurrency, progress: progress,
-                              localLayerCache: localLayerCache,
-                              deduplicate: deduplicate)
-
-        if deduplicate, let llc = localLayerCache {
-          // set custom attribute to remember deduplicated bytes
-          diskURL.setDeduplicatedBytes(llc.deduplicatedBytes)
-        }
-      case .stacked(let base, let overlays):
-        // The deterministic resumable directory may contain a partial
-        // disk.img from an interrupted pull while this tag was standalone. A
-        // cached stacked image must not retain that file or it is mistaken for
-        // a standalone VM after the pull is moved into cache.
-        if FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: diskURL.path) {
-          try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: diskURL)
-        }
-
-        let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-
-        for group in [base] + overlays {
-          _ = try await pullDiskFile(
-            registry: registry,
-            group: group,
-            contentStore: contentStore,
-            concurrency: concurrency,
-            progress: progress
-          )
-        }
-      }
+      try await DiskV2.pull(registry: registry, diskLayers: layers, diskURL: diskURL,
+                            concurrency: concurrency, progress: progress,
+                            localLayerCache: localLayerCache,
+                            deduplicate: deduplicate)
    } catch let error where error is FilterError {
      throw RuntimeError.PullFailed("failed to decompress disk: \(error.localizedDescription)")
    }

+    if deduplicate, let llc = localLayerCache {
+      // set custom attribute to remember deduplicated bytes
+      diskURL.setDeduplicatedBytes(llc.deduplicatedBytes)
+    }
+
    // Pull VM's NVRAM file layer and store it in an NVRAM file
    defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pulling NVRAM...")

@@ -110,50 +83,12 @@ extension VMDirectory {
      try nvram.write(contentsOf: data)
    }
    try nvram.close()
+
+    // Serialize VM's manifest to enable better deduplication on subsequent "tart pull"'s
+    try manifest.toJSON().write(to: manifestURL)
  }

-  /// Reconstructs one complete immutable base disk or published ASIF overlay
-  /// from its Tart disk chunks, unless the shared content store already has a
-  /// size-matching copy.
-  private func pullDiskFile(
-    registry: Registry,
-    group: TartDiskFileGroup,
-    contentStore: ContentStore,
-    concurrency: UInt,
-    progress: Progress
-  ) async throws -> URL {
-    guard let contentDigest = group.contentDigest else {
-      throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("stacked disk files need a whole-file content digest")
-    }
-
-    // Pulls for the same semantic disk file share a stable resumable path so
-    // DiskV2 can resume after a transient failure. Serialize writers before
-    // rechecking the final entry to avoid racing on that shared path.
-    let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: contentStore.lockURL(for: contentDigest))
-    try lock.lock()
-    defer { try? lock.unlock() }
-
-    if let existingURL = try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest),
-       let actualSize = UInt64(exactly: try existingURL.sizeBytes()),
-       let expectedSize = group.uncompressedSize(),
-       actualSize == expectedSize {
-      progress.completedUnitCount += group.chunks.reduce(0) { $0 + Int64($1.size) }
-      return existingURL
-    }
-
-    let resumableURL = try contentStore.resumableContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-    try await DiskV2.pull(
-      registry: registry,
-      diskLayers: group.chunks,
-      diskURL: resumableURL,
-      concurrency: concurrency,
-      progress: progress
-    )
-
-    return try contentStore.install(resumableURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-  }
-
-  func pushToRegistry(registry: Registry, references: [String], chunkSizeMb: Int, concurrency: UInt, labels: [String: String] = [:]) async throws -> (name: RemoteName, manifest: OCIManifest) {
+  func pushToRegistry(registry: Registry, references: [String], chunkSizeMb: Int, concurrency: UInt, labels: [String: String] = [:]) async throws -> RemoteName {
    var layers = Array<OCIManifestLayer>()

    // Read VM's config and push it as blob
@@ -167,12 +102,14 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    let configDigest = try await registry.pushBlob(fromData: configJSON, chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb)
    layers.append(OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: configJSON.count, digest: configDigest))

-    let (diskLayers, diskAnnotations) = try await pushDiskLayers(
-      registry: registry,
-      chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb,
-      concurrency: concurrency
-    )
-    layers.append(contentsOf: diskLayers)
+    // Compress the disk file as multiple chunks and push them as disk layers
+    let diskSize = try FileManager.default.attributesOfItem(atPath: diskURL.path)[.size] as! Int64
+
+    defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pushing disk... this will take a while...")
+    let progress = Progress(totalUnitCount: diskSize)
+    ProgressObserver(progress).log(defaultLogger)
+
+    layers.append(contentsOf: try await DiskV2.push(diskURL: diskURL, registry: registry, chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb, concurrency: concurrency, progress: progress))

    // Read VM's NVRAM and push it as blob
    defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pushing NVRAM...")
@@ -185,13 +122,13 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    let ociConfigContainer = OCIConfig.ConfigContainer(Labels: labels)
    let ociConfigJSON = try OCIConfig(architecture: config.arch, os: config.os, config: ociConfigContainer).toJSON()
    let ociConfigDigest = try await registry.pushBlob(fromData: ociConfigJSON, chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb)
-    var manifest = OCIManifest(
+    let manifest = OCIManifest(
      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: ociConfigJSON.count, digest: ociConfigDigest),
-      layers: layers
+      layers: layers,
+      uncompressedDiskSize: UInt64(diskSize),
+      uploadDate: Date()
    )
-    var annotations = diskAnnotations
-    annotations[uploadTimeAnnotation] = Date().toISO()
-    manifest.annotations = annotations
+
    // Manifest
    for reference in references {
      defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pushing manifest for \(reference)...")
@@ -200,158 +137,7 @@ extension VMDirectory {
    }

    let pushedReference = Reference(digest: try manifest.digest())
-    let name = RemoteName(host: registry.host!, namespace: registry.namespace, reference: pushedReference)
-    return (name, manifest)
-  }
-
-  /// Builds the disk portion of the manifest. Registry transport is shared
-  /// for standalone and stacked VMs; only their local disk representation
-  /// determines which descriptors need to be uploaded or reused.
-  private func pushDiskLayers(
-    registry: Registry,
-    chunkSizeMb: Int,
-    concurrency: UInt
-  ) async throws -> ([OCIManifestLayer], [String: String]) {
-    guard isStackedVM else {
-      let diskSize = try FileManager.default.attributesOfItem(atPath: diskURL.path)[.size] as! Int64
-      defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pushing disk... this will take a while...")
-      let progress = Progress(totalUnitCount: diskSize)
-      ProgressObserver(progress).log(defaultLogger)
-
-      let layers = try await DiskV2.push(
-        diskURL: diskURL,
-        mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-        registry: registry,
-        chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb,
-        concurrency: concurrency,
-        progress: progress
-      )
-      return (layers, [uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation: String(diskSize)])
-    }
-
-    let localManifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: manifestURL))
-    // pushToRegistry() reads config.json before reaching this point. Closing
-    // that read descriptor can release the caller's fcntl PID lock, so take a
-    // fresh lock before hashing, uploading, and inspecting the writable overlay.
-    let stackedDiskLock = try lock()
-    guard try stackedDiskLock.trylock() else {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMIsRunning(name)
-    }
-    defer { try? stackedDiskLock.unlock() }
-
-    let inheritedGroups: [TartDiskFileGroup]
-    switch try localManifest.tartDiskRepresentation() {
-    case .flat(let base) where base.contentDigest != nil:
-      inheritedGroups = [base]
-    case .stacked(let base, let overlays):
-      inheritedGroups = [base] + overlays
-    default:
-      throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("stacked VM is missing a pinned disk stack")
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    var layers: [OCIManifestLayer] = []
-    for group in inheritedGroups {
-      layers.append(contentsOf: try await descriptorsForCachedDiskFile(
-        group,
-        contentStore: contentStore,
-        registry: registry,
-        chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb,
-        concurrency: concurrency
-      ))
-    }
-
-    let overlaySize = try FileManager.default.attributesOfItem(atPath: overlayURL.path)[.size] as! Int64
-    defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pushing overlay...")
-    let progress = Progress(totalUnitCount: overlaySize)
-    ProgressObserver(progress).log(defaultLogger)
-    let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(overlayURL)
-    let chunks = try await DiskV2.push(
-      diskURL: overlayURL,
-      mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType,
-      registry: registry,
-      chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb,
-      concurrency: concurrency,
-      progress: progress
-    )
-    layers.append(contentsOf: annotatedChunks(chunks, kind: .asifOverlay, contentDigest: contentDigest))
-
-    let blockLayout = try DiskImageStack.diskImageBlockLayout(at: overlayURL)
-    let diskSize = blockLayout.blockSize.multipliedReportingOverflow(by: blockLayout.blockCount)
-    guard !diskSize.overflow else {
-      throw DiskImageStackError.invalidBlockLayout("stacked disk block layout overflows UInt64")
-    }
-
-    var annotations = localManifest.annotations ?? [:]
-    annotations[diskBlockSizeAnnotation] = String(blockLayout.blockSize)
-    annotations[uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation] = String(diskSize.partialValue)
-
-    return (layers, annotations)
-  }
-
-  /// Returns transport descriptors for an immutable disk file. If the
-  /// target registry lacks the original blobs, recreate them from the local
-  /// content store.
-  private func descriptorsForCachedDiskFile(
-    _ group: TartDiskFileGroup,
-    contentStore: ContentStore,
-    registry: Registry,
-    chunkSizeMb: Int,
-    concurrency: UInt
-  ) async throws -> [OCIManifestLayer] {
-    guard let contentDigest = group.contentDigest else {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("stacked VM is missing a pinned disk file digest")
-    }
-
-    var allChunksExist = true
-    for chunk in group.chunks {
-      if try await !registry.blobExists(chunk.digest) {
-        allChunksExist = false
-        break
-      }
-    }
-    if allChunksExist {
-      return group.chunks
-    }
-
-    // Rebuilding transport blobs republishes this file under the pinned
-    // whole-file digest, so validate the cached bytes at this boundary.
-    guard let contentURL = try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest) else {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMMissingFiles("stacked VM is missing cached disk content \(contentDigest)")
-    }
-    let contentSize = try FileManager.default.attributesOfItem(atPath: contentURL.path)[.size] as! Int64
-    let progress = Progress(totalUnitCount: contentSize)
-    let mediaType = group.kind == .base ? diskV2MediaType : asifOverlayMediaType
-    let chunks = try await DiskV2.push(
-      diskURL: contentURL,
-      mediaType: mediaType,
-      registry: registry,
-      chunkSizeMb: chunkSizeMb,
-      concurrency: concurrency,
-      progress: progress
-    )
-
-    return annotatedChunks(chunks, kind: group.kind, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-  }
-
-  private func annotatedChunks(
-    _ chunks: [OCIManifestLayer],
-    kind: TartDiskFileGroup.Kind,
-    contentDigest: String
-  ) -> [OCIManifestLayer] {
-    guard !chunks.isEmpty else {
-      return chunks
-    }
-
-    var chunks = chunks
-    var annotations = chunks[0].annotations ?? [:]
-    annotations[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = contentDigest
-    if kind == .asifOverlay {
-      annotations[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation] = String(chunks.count)
-    }
-    chunks[0].annotations = annotations
-
-    return chunks
+    return RemoteName(host: registry.host!, namespace: registry.namespace, reference: pushedReference)
  }
 }

@@ -26,9 +26,6 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
  var manifestURL: URL {
    baseURL.appendingPathComponent("manifest.json")
  }
-  var overlayURL: URL {
-    baseURL.appendingPathComponent("overlay.asif")
-  }
  var controlSocketURL: URL {
    URL(fileURLWithPath: "control.sock", relativeTo: baseURL)
  }
@@ -90,74 +87,10 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
    return VMDirectory(baseURL: tmpDir)
  }

-  private var hasRequiredMetadata: Bool {
-    let fileManager = FileManager.default
-
-    return fileManager.fileExists(atPath: configURL.path) &&
-      fileManager.fileExists(atPath: nvramURL.path)
-  }
-
-  enum Layout: Equatable {
-    /// Existing Tart layout with one independently attachable `disk.img`.
-    /// A pulled standalone OCI record may also carry `manifest.json`.
-    case standalone
-
-    /// Runnable stacked VM with immutable disk files from `manifest.json` and
-    /// a private writable `overlay.asif`.
-    case stackedLocal
-
-    /// Pulled OCI record for a stacked image. It intentionally has no writable
-    /// overlay and becomes runnable only after `tart clone` creates one.
-    case stackedOCIRecord
-
-    var isRunnable: Bool {
-      self != .stackedOCIRecord
-    }
-  }
-
-  var layout: Layout? {
-    let fileManager = FileManager.default
-    let hasDisk = fileManager.fileExists(atPath: diskURL.path)
-    let hasManifest = fileManager.fileExists(atPath: manifestURL.path)
-    let hasOverlay = fileManager.fileExists(atPath: overlayURL.path)
-
-    guard hasRequiredMetadata else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    if hasDisk && !hasOverlay {
-      return .standalone
-    }
-    if !hasDisk && hasManifest && hasOverlay {
-      return .stackedLocal
-    }
-    if !hasDisk && hasManifest && !hasOverlay {
-      return .stackedOCIRecord
-    }
-
-    return nil
-  }
-
  var initialized: Bool {
-    layout?.isRunnable == true
-  }
-
-  var isStandalone: Bool {
-    layout == .standalone
-  }
-
-  var isStackedVM: Bool {
-    layout == .stackedLocal
-  }
-
-  var isStackedCachedImage: Bool {
-    layout == .stackedOCIRecord
-  }
-
-  /// Shapes that may live in the remote-image cache. A cached stacked image
-  /// has no writable overlay and is intentionally not runnable as a local VM.
-  var isCachedImage: Bool {
-    layout == .standalone || layout == .stackedOCIRecord
+    FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: configURL.path) &&
+      FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: diskURL.path) &&
+      FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: nvramURL.path)
  }

  func initialize(overwrite: Bool = false) throws {
@@ -170,9 +103,6 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: configURL)
    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: diskURL)
    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: nvramURL)
-    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: manifestURL)
-    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: overlayURL)
-    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: stateURL)
  }

  func validate(userFriendlyName: String) throws {
@@ -181,26 +111,8 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
    }

    if !initialized {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMMissingFiles(
-        "VM is missing files for a supported layout: "
-          + "standalone requires \(configURL.lastPathComponent), \(diskURL.lastPathComponent) and \(nvramURL.lastPathComponent); "
-          + "stacked requires \(configURL.lastPathComponent), \(manifestURL.lastPathComponent), "
-          + "\(overlayURL.lastPathComponent) and \(nvramURL.lastPathComponent)"
-      )
-    }
-  }
-
-  func validateCachedImage(userFriendlyName: String) throws {
-    if !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseURL.path) {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMDoesNotExist(name: userFriendlyName)
-    }
-
-    if !isCachedImage {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMMissingFiles(
-        "cached image is missing files for a supported layout: "
-          + "standalone requires \(configURL.lastPathComponent), \(diskURL.lastPathComponent) and \(nvramURL.lastPathComponent); "
-          + "stacked requires \(configURL.lastPathComponent), \(manifestURL.lastPathComponent) and \(nvramURL.lastPathComponent)"
-      )
+      throw RuntimeError.VMMissingFiles("VM is missing some of its files (\(configURL.lastPathComponent),"
+        + " \(diskURL.lastPathComponent) or \(nvramURL.lastPathComponent))")
    }
  }

@@ -230,38 +142,7 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
    try vmConfig.save(toURL: configURL)
  }

-  func resizeDisk(
-    _ sizeGB: UInt16,
-    format: DiskImageFormat = .raw,
-    contentStore: ContentStore? = nil
-  ) throws {
-    if isStackedVM {
-      // Resolve the stack before taking the config.json PID lock. Reading
-      // config.json after acquiring an fcntl lock would release that lock
-      // when the read file descriptor is closed.
-      let stack = try diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore)
-      let lock = try lock()
-      guard try lock.trylock() else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM \"\(name)\" must be stopped before resizing its disk")
-      }
-      defer { try? lock.unlock() }
-
-      // Holding the PID lock proves that the VM is not running. A saved state
-      // file is the remaining suspended state that must also reject resize.
-      guard !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: stateURL.path) else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM \"\(name)\" must be stopped before resizing its disk")
-      }
-
-      let desiredSizeBytes = UInt64(sizeGB) * 1000 * 1000 * 1000
-      guard desiredSizeBytes.isMultiple(of: stack.blockSize) else {
-        throw RuntimeError.InvalidDiskSize("new disk size must align to the stacked disk block size")
-      }
-
-      let desiredBlockCount = desiredSizeBytes / stack.blockSize
-      try stack.growWritableOverlay(toBlockCount: desiredBlockCount)
-      return
-    }
-
+  func resizeDisk(_ sizeGB: UInt16, format: DiskImageFormat = .raw) throws {
    let diskExists = FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: diskURL.path)

    if diskExists {
@@ -385,33 +266,17 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
      throw RuntimeError.VMIsRunning(name)
    }

-    // Standalone local VMs do not reference the shared content store. Delete
-    // them directly so a full disk can still be recovered before the content
-    // store has ever been initialized.
-    if isStandalone {
-      try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: baseURL)
-    } else {
-      try removeFromDisk()
-    }
+    try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: baseURL)

    try lock.unlock()
  }

-  /// Removes a VM directory while preserving the content-store reference
-  /// protocol for any complete or partially published manifest it contains.
-  func removeFromDisk() throws {
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: baseURL)
-    }
-  }
-
  func accessDate() throws -> Date {
    try baseURL.accessDate()
  }

  func allocatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try configURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + localDiskStorageAllocatedSizeBytes() + nvramURL.allocatedSizeBytes()
+    try configURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + diskURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + nvramURL.allocatedSizeBytes()
  }

  func allocatedSizeGB() throws -> Int {
@@ -419,7 +284,7 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
  }

  func deduplicatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try configURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes() + localDiskStorageDeduplicatedSizeBytes() + nvramURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes()
+    try configURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes() + diskURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes() + nvramURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes()
  }

  func deduplicatedSizeGB() throws -> Int {
@@ -427,7 +292,7 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
  }

  func sizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try configURL.sizeBytes() + localDiskStorageSizeBytes() + nvramURL.sizeBytes()
+    try configURL.sizeBytes() + diskURL.sizeBytes() + nvramURL.sizeBytes()
  }

  func sizeGB() throws -> Int {
@@ -435,30 +300,6 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
  }

  func diskSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    if isStackedVM {
-      let blockLayout = try DiskImageStack.diskImageBlockLayout(at: overlayURL)
-      let product = blockLayout.blockSize.multipliedReportingOverflow(by: blockLayout.blockCount)
-      guard !product.overflow, let diskSizeBytes = Int(exactly: product.partialValue) else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM has invalid stacked disk block layout")
-      }
-
-      return diskSizeBytes
-    }
-
-    if isStackedCachedImage {
-      let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: manifestURL))
-      guard let blockSize = manifest.diskBlockSize(),
-            let blockCount = manifest.diskBlockCount() else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM has invalid stacked disk block layout")
-      }
-      let product = blockSize.multipliedReportingOverflow(by: blockCount)
-      guard !product.overflow, let diskSizeBytes = Int(exactly: product.partialValue) else {
-        throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("VM has invalid stacked disk block layout")
-      }
-
-      return diskSizeBytes
-    }
-
    let vmConfig = try VMConfig(fromURL: configURL)

    return switch vmConfig.diskFormat {
@@ -469,6 +310,10 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
    }
  }

+  func diskSizeGB() throws -> Int {
+    try diskSizeBytes() / 1000 / 1000 / 1000
+  }
+
  func markExplicitlyPulled() {
    FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: explicitlyPulledMark.path, contents: nil)
  }
@@ -476,23 +321,4 @@ struct VMDirectory: Prunable {
  func isExplicitlyPulled() -> Bool {
    FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: explicitlyPulledMark.path)
  }
-
-  private var localDiskStorageURL: URL {
-    isStackedVM ? overlayURL : diskURL
-  }
-
-  // Cached stacked images own no disk file in their VM directory. Their
-  // immutable disk content lives in the shared content store and must not be
-  // charged to every cached image that references it.
-  private func localDiskStorageAllocatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    isStackedCachedImage ? 0 : try localDiskStorageURL.allocatedSizeBytes()
-  }
-
-  private func localDiskStorageDeduplicatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    isStackedCachedImage ? 0 : try localDiskStorageURL.deduplicatedSizeBytes()
-  }
-
-  private func localDiskStorageSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    isStackedCachedImage ? 0 : try localDiskStorageURL.sizeBytes()
-  }
 }
@@ -35,36 +35,11 @@ class VMStorageLocal: PrunableStorage {

  func move(_ name: String, from: VMDirectory) throws {
    _ = try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: baseURL, withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-    try replace(VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name)), with: from)
+    _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(vmURL(name), withItemAt: from.baseURL)
  }

  func rename(_ name: String, _ newName: String) throws {
-    let source = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name))
-    let destination = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(newName))
-    try replace(destination, with: source)
-  }
-
-  /// References in a manifest must not disappear while content GC is deciding
-  /// whether their immutable disk files are still in use.
-  private func replace(_ destination: VMDirectory, with source: VMDirectory) throws {
-    // Replacing a running VM's directory unlinks its locked config and disks,
-    // leaving a live VM that list and stop can no longer find by name.
-    let destinationLock = FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: destination.configURL.path)
-      ? try destination.lock() : nil
-    if let destinationLock, try !destinationLock.trylock() {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMIsRunning(destination.name)
-    }
-    defer { withExtendedLifetime(destinationLock) {} }
-
-    if FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: source.manifestURL.path) ||
-      FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: destination.manifestURL.path) {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-        _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(destination.baseURL, withItemAt: source.baseURL)
-      }
-    } else {
-      _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(destination.baseURL, withItemAt: source.baseURL)
-    }
+    _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(vmURL(newName), withItemAt: vmURL(name))
  }

  func delete(_ name: String) throws {
@@ -18,104 +18,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
  }

  func exists(_ name: RemoteName) -> Bool {
-    VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name)).isCachedImage
-  }
-
-  /// Whether clone can use a cached image without pulling. Standalone images keep
-  /// Tart's existing structural check. Stacked cached images require every
-  /// immutable file with its expected length.
-  func hasUsableCachedImageForClone(_ name: RemoteName, requireManifest: Bool = false) throws -> Bool {
-    guard exists(name) else {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name))
-    if requireManifest && !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: vmDir.manifestURL.path) {
-      return false
-    }
-    guard vmDir.isStackedCachedImage else {
-      return true
-    }
-
-    let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: vmDir.manifestURL))
-    guard case .stacked(let base, let overlays) = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() else {
-      return true
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    for group in [base] + overlays {
-      guard try hasUsableCachedDiskFile(group, contentStore: contentStore) else {
-        return false
-      }
-    }
-
-    return true
-  }
-
-  /// Whether a cached image is complete enough for `pull` to return without
-  /// repairing it. Standalone images keep Tart's existing structural cache-hit
-  /// behavior; stacked cached images additionally need every immutable disk file in
-  /// the shared content store.
-  func hasCompleteCachedImage(
-    _ name: RemoteName,
-    manifest: OCIManifest,
-    requireManifest: Bool = false
-  ) throws -> Bool {
-    guard exists(name) else {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name))
-    if requireManifest && !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: vmDir.manifestURL.path) {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    guard let missingGroups = try missingStackedDiskFileGroups(for: manifest) else {
-      return true
-    }
-
-    return missingGroups.isEmpty
-  }
-
-  /// The lock-free pull fast path is only useful for a tag that already
-  /// points at this digest. New or retargeted tags validate once after taking
-  /// the host lock instead of hashing a large stack twice.
-  func hasCompleteLinkedImage(
-    _ name: RemoteName,
-    digestName: RemoteName,
-    manifest: OCIManifest,
-    requireManifest: Bool = false
-  ) throws -> Bool {
-    guard exists(name), linked(from: name, to: digestName) else {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    return try hasCompleteCachedImage(digestName, manifest: manifest, requireManifest: requireManifest)
-  }
-
-  /// Bytes that this pull may need to materialize locally. For stacked images
-  /// this is the sum of only the missing complete disk files, not the final
-  /// guest-visible disk block layout.
-  func requiredDiskStorageBytes(for manifest: OCIManifest) throws -> UInt64? {
-    guard let missingGroups = try missingStackedDiskFileGroups(for: manifest) else {
-      return manifest.uncompressedDiskSize()
-    }
-
-    var total: UInt64 = 0
-    for group in missingGroups {
-      for chunk in group.chunks {
-        guard let uncompressedSize = chunk.uncompressedSize() else {
-          throw OCIManifestValidationError.invalidDiskMetadata("disk chunks need uncompressed size and content digest")
-        }
-        let addition = total.addingReportingOverflow(uncompressedSize)
-        guard !addition.overflow else {
-          throw RuntimeError.PullFailed("stacked disk storage size overflows UInt64")
-        }
-        total = addition.partialValue
-      }
-    }
-
-    return total
+    VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name)).initialized
  }

  func digest(_ name: RemoteName) throws -> String {
@@ -131,7 +34,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
  func open(_ name: RemoteName, _ accessDate: Date = Date()) throws -> VMDirectory {
    let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name))

-    try vmDir.validateCachedImage(userFriendlyName: name.description)
+    try vmDir.validate(userFriendlyName: name.description)

    try vmDir.baseURL.updateAccessDate(accessDate)

@@ -141,64 +44,11 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
  func create(_ name: RemoteName, overwrite: Bool = false) throws -> VMDirectory {
    let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(name))

-    if !overwrite && vmDir.isCachedImage {
-      throw RuntimeError.VMDirectoryAlreadyInitialized("VM directory is already initialized, preventing overwrite")
-    }
-
    try vmDir.initialize(overwrite: overwrite)

    return vmDir
  }

-  /// Materialize the digest-addressed cached image for an image Tart just
-  /// pushed, without routing its own local data back through the registry.
-  func populate(_ name: RemoteName, from source: VMDirectory, manifest: OCIManifest) throws {
-    if try hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest) {
-      return
-    }
-
-    let vmDir = try create(name, overwrite: exists(name))
-
-    do {
-      if source.isStackedVM {
-        guard case .stacked(_, let overlays) = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation(),
-              let contentDigest = overlays.last?.contentDigest else {
-          throw RuntimeError.VMConfigurationError("pushed image is missing its writable ASIF overlay")
-        }
-
-        // The pushed top overlay becomes immutable in the cached image. Keep a
-        // semantic copy so later clones do not need to fetch it back.
-        let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-        try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-          try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: source.configURL, to: vmDir.configURL)
-          try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: source.nvramURL, to: vmDir.nvramURL)
-          // Publish the reference before installing the immutable top overlay,
-          // so reference-aware pruning cannot collect it in between.
-          try manifest.toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-        }
-
-        if try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest) == nil {
-          let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-          do {
-            try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: source.overlayURL, to: temporaryURL)
-            _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-          } catch {
-            try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-            throw error
-          }
-        }
-      } else {
-        try source.clone(to: vmDir, generateMAC: false)
-        // Keep the exact manifest Tart submitted so tag links and later pushes
-        // refer to the same digest-addressed cached image.
-        try manifest.toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-      }
-    } catch {
-      try? vmDir.removeFromDisk()
-      throw error
-    }
-  }
-
  func move(_ name: RemoteName, from: VMDirectory) throws{
    let targetURL = vmURL(name)

@@ -207,20 +57,11 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: targetURL.deletingLastPathComponent(),
                                            withIntermediateDirectories: true)

-    let target = VMDirectory(baseURL: targetURL)
-    if FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: from.manifestURL.path) ||
-      FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: target.manifestURL.path) {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-        _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(targetURL, withItemAt: from.baseURL)
-      }
-    } else {
-      _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(targetURL, withItemAt: from.baseURL)
-    }
+    _ = try FileManager.default.replaceItemAt(targetURL, withItemAt: from.baseURL)
  }

  func delete(_ name: RemoteName) throws {
-    try removeRecord(at: vmURL(name))
+    try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: vmURL(name))
    try gc()
  }

@@ -229,7 +70,6 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {

    guard let enumerator = FileManager.default.enumerator(at: baseURL,
                                                          includingPropertiesForKeys: [.isSymbolicLinkKey]) else {
-      try gcContent()
      return
    }

@@ -244,7 +84,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
      }

      let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: foundURL.resolvingSymlinksInPath())
-      if !vmDir.isCachedImage {
+      if !vmDir.initialized {
        continue
      }

@@ -257,28 +97,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
      let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: baseURL)

      if !vmDir.isExplicitlyPulled() && incRefCount == 0 {
-        try removeRecord(at: baseURL)
-      }
-    }
-
-    try gcContent()
-  }
-
-  /// Cached images with a manifest publish references into the shared content
-  /// store. Remove them through VMDirectory so reference removal is serialized
-  /// with clone, export, pull, and content GC, even if a record is incomplete.
-  private func removeRecord(at url: URL) throws {
-    try VMDirectory(baseURL: url).removeFromDisk()
-  }
-
-  /// Remove immutable files whose final published or in-progress reference
-  /// has disappeared, without collecting unrelated cached images.
-  fileprivate func gcContent() throws {
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      let referencedContentDigests = try referencedContentDigests(includeCachedImages: true)
-      for contentURL in try contentStore.prunables(excluding: referencedContentDigests) {
-        try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: contentURL)
+        try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: baseURL)
      }
    }
  }
@@ -294,7 +113,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
    for case let foundURL as URL in enumerator {
      let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: foundURL)

-      if !vmDir.isCachedImage {
+      if !vmDir.initialized {
        continue
      }

@@ -322,67 +141,10 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
  }

  func prunables() throws -> [Prunable] {
-    let records = try list().filter { (_, _, isSymlink) in
-      !isSymlink
-    }.map { (_, vmDir, _) in vmDir }
-
-    // Attribute shared content to the newest cached image that references it.
-    // This counts each file once while charging it to the last record that
-    // normally needs to be removed before the file becomes reclaimable.
-    let nonCacheContentDigests = try referencedContentDigests(includeCachedImages: false)
-    var contentOwners = [String: VMDirectory]()
-    for record in records where record.isStackedCachedImage {
-      // Interrupted cache population can leave a truncated manifest in an
-      // otherwise recognizable cached record. It has no reliable content
-      // references, but it must not prevent pruning other cache entries.
-      for contentDigest in (try? record.diskContentDigests()) ?? []
-        where !nonCacheContentDigests.contains(contentDigest) {
-        guard let currentOwner = contentOwners[contentDigest] else {
-          contentOwners[contentDigest] = record
-          continue
-        }
-
-        let recordAccessDate = try record.accessDate()
-        let currentAccessDate = try currentOwner.accessDate()
-        if recordAccessDate > currentAccessDate ||
-          (recordAccessDate == currentAccessDate && record.url.path > currentOwner.url.path) {
-          contentOwners[contentDigest] = record
-        }
-      }
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    var ownedContentURLs = [URL: [URL]]()
-    for (contentDigest, owner) in contentOwners {
-      let contentURL = try contentStore.contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-      guard FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: contentURL.path) else {
-        continue
-      }
-
-      ownedContentURLs[owner.url, default: []].append(contentURL)
-    }
-
-    var result: [Prunable] = records.map { record in
-      CachedImagePrunable(
-        vmDir: record,
-        ownedContentURLs: ownedContentURLs[record.url] ?? []
-      )
-    }
-
-    result += try contentStore.prunables(excluding: referencedContentDigests(includeCachedImages: true))
-      .map(ContentPrunable.init)
-
-    return result
+    try list().filter { (_, _, isSymlink) in !isSymlink }.map { (_, vmDir, _) in vmDir }
  }

-  func pull(
-    _ name: RemoteName,
-    registry: Registry,
-    concurrency: UInt,
-    deduplicate: Bool,
-    requireManifest: Bool = false,
-    resolvedManifest: (manifest: OCIManifest, data: Data)? = nil
-  ) async throws {
+  func pull(_ name: RemoteName, registry: Registry, concurrency: UInt, deduplicate: Bool) async throws {
    OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.setAttribute(
      key: "oci.image-name",
      value: .string(name.description)
@@ -390,23 +152,12 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {

    defaultLogger.appendNewLine("pulling manifest...")

-    let (manifest, manifestData): (OCIManifest, Data)
-    if let resolvedManifest {
-      manifest = resolvedManifest.manifest
-      manifestData = resolvedManifest.data
-    } else {
-      (manifest, manifestData) = try await registry.pullManifest(reference: name.reference.value)
-    }
+    let (manifest, manifestData) = try await registry.pullManifest(reference: name.reference.value)

    let digestName = RemoteName(host: name.host, namespace: name.namespace,
                                reference: Reference(digest: Digest.hash(manifestData)))

-    if try hasCompleteLinkedImage(
-      name,
-      digestName: digestName,
-      manifest: manifest,
-      requireManifest: requireManifest
-    ) {
+    if exists(name) && exists(digestName) && linked(from: name, to: digestName) {
      // optimistically check if we need to do anything at all before locking
      defaultLogger.appendNewLine("\(digestName) image is already cached and linked!")
      return
@@ -430,22 +181,11 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
      throw CancellationError()
    }

-    let digestVMDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: vmURL(digestName))
-    if requireManifest,
-       !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: digestVMDir.manifestURL.path),
-       try hasCompleteCachedImage(digestName, manifest: manifest) {
-      // Old Tart versions cached standalone OCI images without manifest.json.
-      // A stacked clone needs the manifest to describe its immutable base, but
-      // the existing disk remains usable and must not be downloaded again.
-      try manifestData.write(to: digestVMDir.manifestURL, options: .atomic)
-    }
-
-    if try !hasCompleteCachedImage(digestName, manifest: manifest, requireManifest: requireManifest) {
+    if !exists(digestName) {
      let span = OTel.shared.tracer.spanBuilder(spanName: "pull").setActive(true).startSpan()
      defer { span.end() }

      let tmpVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporaryDeterministic(key: name.description)
-      let preserveExplicitlyPulledMark = digestVMDir.isExplicitlyPulled()

      // Open an existing VM directory corresponding to this name, if any,
      // marking it as outdated to speed up the garbage collection process
@@ -455,47 +195,22 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
      let tmpVMDirLock = try FileLock(lockURL: tmpVMDir.baseURL)
      try tmpVMDirLock.lock()

-      // Make in-progress stacked content references visible before reclaiming
-      // space or reconstructing immutable files.
-      try ContentStore().withPruneLock {
-        try manifestData.write(to: tmpVMDir.manifestURL)
-      }
-
-      // A previously pulled standalone image already has the complete base
-      // disk locally as disk.img. Promote that file into the content store
-      // before sizing or pulling so a stacked child only fetches overlays.
-      try reuseStandaloneDiskForStackedBaseIfPossible(manifest)
-
      // Try to reclaim some cache space if we know the VM size in advance
-      if let requiredDiskStorageBytes = try requiredDiskStorageBytes(for: manifest) {
-        if let telemetryValue = Int(exactly: requiredDiskStorageBytes) {
-          OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.setAttribute(
-            key: "oci.image-required-disk-storage-bytes",
-            value: .int(telemetryValue)
-          )
-        }
+      if let uncompressedDiskSize = manifest.uncompressedDiskSize() {
+        OpenTelemetry.instance.contextProvider.activeSpan?.setAttribute(
+          key: "oci.image-uncompressed-disk-size-bytes",
+          value: .int(Int(uncompressedDiskSize))
+        )

        let otherVMFilesSize: UInt64 = 128 * 1024 * 1024
-        let requiredStorage = requiredDiskStorageBytes.addingReportingOverflow(otherVMFilesSize)
-        guard !requiredStorage.overflow else {
-          throw RuntimeError.PullFailed("required pull storage size overflows UInt64")
-        }

-        try Prune.reclaimIfNeeded(requiredStorage.partialValue)
+        try Prune.reclaimIfNeeded(uncompressedDiskSize + otherVMFilesSize)
      }

      try await withTaskCancellationHandler(operation: {
        try await retry(maxAttempts: 5) {
-          // Existing standalone images can still reuse another complete local disk.
-          // Stacked images reconstruct their immutable files through the
-          // shared content store instead of materializing disk.img.
-          let localLayerCache: LocalLayerCache?
-          switch try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() {
-          case .flat:
-            localLayerCache = try await chooseLocalLayerCache(name, manifest, registry)
-          case .stacked:
-            localLayerCache = nil
-          }
+          // Choose the best base image which has the most deduplication ratio
+          let localLayerCache = try await chooseLocalLayerCache(name, manifest, registry)

          if let llc = localLayerCache {
            let deduplicatedHuman = ByteCountFormatter.string(fromByteCount: Int64(llc.deduplicatedBytes), countStyle: .file)
@@ -517,14 +232,9 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {

          return .throw
        }
-
-        if preserveExplicitlyPulledMark {
-          tmpVMDir.markExplicitlyPulled()
-        }
-
        try move(digestName, from: tmpVMDir)
      }, onCancel: {
-        try? tmpVMDir.removeFromDisk()
+        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: tmpVMDir.baseURL)
      })
    } else {
      defaultLogger.appendNewLine("\(digestName) image is already cached! creating a symlink...")
@@ -543,115 +253,6 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
    _ = try VMStorageOCI().open(name)
  }

-  /// Returns nil for standalone images and the missing immutable disk-file
-  /// groups for stacked images. Like existing standalone cached images, cache hits trust
-  /// already-installed files; checking size still repairs truncated entries
-  /// without hashing a large prewarmed base on every pull.
-  private func missingStackedDiskFileGroups(for manifest: OCIManifest) throws -> [TartDiskFileGroup]? {
-    guard case .stacked(let base, let overlays) = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() else {
-      return nil
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    var missingGroups: [TartDiskFileGroup] = []
-    for group in [base] + overlays {
-      if try !hasUsableCachedDiskFile(group, contentStore: contentStore) {
-        missingGroups.append(group)
-      }
-    }
-
-    return missingGroups
-  }
-
-  /// Seed a stacked image's immutable base from an already pulled standalone
-  /// OCI record when both manifests describe the same transport chunks. The
-  /// content store still verifies the whole-file digest before publishing it.
-  func reuseStandaloneDiskForStackedBaseIfPossible(_ manifest: OCIManifest) throws {
-    guard case .stacked(let base, _) = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation(),
-          let contentDigest = base.contentDigest else {
-      return
-    }
-
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    var attemptedCandidates = Swift.Set<String>()
-    while true {
-      // Keep the source record alive only while cloning its disk. The pull's
-      // in-progress manifest already protects the destination content digest,
-      // so hashing and installing the staged clone need not hold the global
-      // prune lock.
-      let temporaryURL = try contentStore.withPruneLock { () -> URL? in
-        // Content-store entries are verified when installed. Avoid hashing a
-        // potentially large prewarmed base again on every stacked pull.
-        guard try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest) == nil else {
-          return nil
-        }
-
-        for (_, vmDir, isSymlink) in try list() where !isSymlink && vmDir.isStandalone {
-          guard !attemptedCandidates.contains(vmDir.baseURL.path),
-                let manifestData = try? Data(contentsOf: vmDir.manifestURL),
-                let candidateManifest = try? OCIManifest(fromJSON: manifestData),
-                case .flat(let candidateBase) = try? candidateManifest.tartDiskRepresentation(),
-                diskChunksMatch(candidateBase.chunks, base.chunks) else {
-            continue
-          }
-
-          attemptedCandidates.insert(vmDir.baseURL.path)
-          let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-          do {
-            try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: vmDir.diskURL, to: temporaryURL)
-            return temporaryURL
-          } catch {
-            try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-            throw error
-          }
-        }
-
-        return nil
-      }
-
-      guard let temporaryURL else {
-        return
-      }
-
-      do {
-        _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-        return
-      } catch ContentStoreError.contentDigestMismatch {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-      } catch {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryURL)
-        throw error
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  /// Compare the OCI transport identity while ignoring stacked-only
-  /// whole-file annotations added to the first base chunk.
-  private func diskChunksMatch(_ left: [OCIManifestLayer], _ right: [OCIManifestLayer]) -> Bool {
-    guard left.count == right.count else {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    return zip(left, right).allSatisfy { left, right in
-      left.mediaType == right.mediaType &&
-        left.size == right.size &&
-        left.digest == right.digest &&
-        left.uncompressedSize() == right.uncompressedSize() &&
-        left.uncompressedContentDigest() == right.uncompressedContentDigest()
-    }
-  }
-
-  private func hasUsableCachedDiskFile(_ group: TartDiskFileGroup, contentStore: ContentStore) throws -> Bool {
-    guard let contentDigest = group.contentDigest,
-          let contentURL = try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest),
-          let actualSize = UInt64(exactly: try contentURL.sizeBytes()),
-          let expectedSize = group.uncompressedSize() else {
-      return false
-    }
-
-    return actualSize == expectedSize
-  }
-
  func linked(from: RemoteName, to: RemoteName) -> Bool {
    do {
      let resolvedFrom = try FileManager.default.destinationOfSymbolicLink(atPath: vmURL(from).path)
@@ -662,13 +263,9 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
  }

  func link(from: RemoteName, to: RemoteName) throws {
-    // Export resolves mutable tags while holding this same lock, so replace
-    // the symlink atomically with respect to stacked archive staging.
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: vmURL(from))
-      try FileManager.default.createSymbolicLink(at: vmURL(from), withDestinationURL: vmURL(to))
-    }
+    try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: vmURL(from))
+
+    try FileManager.default.createSymbolicLink(at: vmURL(from), withDestinationURL: vmURL(to))

    try gc()
  }
@@ -683,16 +280,10 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
    }

    // Load OCI VM images and their manifests (if present)
-    var candidates: [(
-      name: String,
-      vmDir: VMDirectory,
-      manifest: OCIManifest,
-      manifestDigest: String,
-      deduplicatedBytes: UInt64
-    )] = []
+    var candidates: [(name: String, vmDir: VMDirectory, manifest: OCIManifest, deduplicatedBytes: UInt64)] = []

    for (name, vmDir, isSymlink) in try list() {
-      if isSymlink || !vmDir.isStandalone {
+      if isSymlink {
        continue
      }

@@ -704,13 +295,7 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
        continue
      }

-      candidates.append((
-        name,
-        vmDir,
-        manifest,
-        Digest.hash(manifestJSON),
-        calculateDeduplicatedBytes(manifest)
-      ))
+      candidates.append((name, vmDir, manifest, calculateDeduplicatedBytes(manifest)))
    }

    // Previously we haven't stored the OCI VM image manifests, but still fetched the VM image manifest if
@@ -720,17 +305,10 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
    // with the registry if we haven't already retrieved the manifest for that OCI VM image.
    if name.reference.type == .Tag,
       let vmDir = try? open(name),
-       vmDir.isStandalone,
       let digest = try? digest(name),
-       !candidates.contains(where: { $0.manifestDigest == digest }),
-       let (manifest, manifestData) = try? await registry.pullManifest(reference: digest) {
-      candidates.append((
-        name.description,
-        vmDir,
-        manifest,
-        Digest.hash(manifestData),
-        calculateDeduplicatedBytes(manifest)
-      ))
+       try !candidates.contains(where: {try $0.manifest.digest() == digest}),
+       let (manifest, _) = try? await registry.pullManifest(reference: digest) {
+      candidates.append((name.description, vmDir, manifest, calculateDeduplicatedBytes(manifest)))
    }

    // Now, find the best match based on how many bytes we'll deduplicate
@@ -744,108 +322,6 @@ class VMStorageOCI: PrunableStorage {
      try LocalLayerCache(choosen.name, choosen.deduplicatedBytes, choosen.vmDir.diskURL, choosen.manifest)
    })
  }
-
-  /// Returns content referenced outside the OCI cache, optionally including
-  /// references published by retained cached images.
-  private func referencedContentDigests(includeCachedImages: Bool) throws -> Swift.Set<String> {
-    var result = Swift.Set<String>()
-
-    for (_, vmDir) in try VMStorageLocal().list() where vmDir.isStackedVM {
-      result.formUnion(try vmDir.diskContentDigests())
-    }
-
-    // Clone, pull, and import publish their manifest before installing
-    // immutable content. Include partially populated temporary directories so
-    // pruning cannot race those operations.
-    for url in try FileManager.default.contentsOfDirectory(
-      at: Config().tartTmpDir,
-      includingPropertiesForKeys: [],
-      options: .skipsHiddenFiles
-    ) {
-      let vmDir = VMDirectory(baseURL: url)
-      guard FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: vmDir.manifestURL.path),
-            let contentDigests = try? vmDir.diskContentDigests() else {
-        continue
-      }
-
-      result.formUnion(contentDigests)
-    }
-
-    if includeCachedImages {
-      for (_, vmDir, isSymlink) in try list() where !isSymlink && vmDir.isStackedCachedImage {
-        // Malformed cached records are invalid references. Keep scanning so
-        // one interrupted population does not disable content GC globally.
-        if let contentDigests = try? vmDir.diskContentDigests() {
-          result.formUnion(contentDigests)
-        }
-      }
-    }
-
-    return result
-  }
-
-  fileprivate func deleteContentIfUnused(_ url: URL) throws {
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-      let referencedContentDigests = try referencedContentDigests(includeCachedImages: true)
-      let stillPrunable = try contentStore.prunables(excluding: referencedContentDigests).contains {
-        $0.resolvingSymlinksInPath() == url.resolvingSymlinksInPath()
-      }
-      if stillPrunable {
-        try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-private struct ContentPrunable: Prunable {
-  let url: URL
-
-  func delete() throws {
-    try VMStorageOCI().deleteContentIfUnused(url)
-  }
-
-  func accessDate() throws -> Date {
-    try url.accessDate()
-  }
-
-  func sizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try url.sizeBytes()
-  }
-
-  func allocatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try url.allocatedSizeBytes()
-  }
-}
-
-/// A digest-addressed cached image plus immutable content attributed to the
-/// final remote reference that can release it.
-private struct CachedImagePrunable: Prunable {
-  let vmDir: VMDirectory
-  let ownedContentURLs: [URL]
-
-  var url: URL {
-    vmDir.url
-  }
-
-  func delete() throws {
-    try vmDir.delete()
-    // Deleting a record can make attributed content unreferenced. Run GC now
-    // so one prune invocation reclaims those bytes.
-    try VMStorageOCI().gcContent()
-  }
-
-  func accessDate() throws -> Date {
-    try vmDir.accessDate()
-  }
-
-  func sizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try vmDir.sizeBytes() + ownedContentURLs.map { try $0.sizeBytes() }.reduce(0, +)
-  }
-
-  func allocatedSizeBytes() throws -> Int {
-    try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes() + ownedContentURLs.map { try $0.allocatedSizeBytes() }.reduce(0, +)
-  }
 }

 extension URL {
@@ -1,285 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import ArgumentParser
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class CommandBehaviorTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testListSurvivesUnavailableDiskCapacity() async throws {
-    try await withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let previousPath = try installUnavailableDiskutil()
-      defer { restoreEnvironment("PATH", to: previousPath) }
-
-      let local = try VMStorageLocal()
-      let oci = try VMStorageOCI()
-      for (name, diskFormat) in [("unavailable", DiskImageFormat.asif), ("healthy", .raw)] {
-        let remoteName = try RemoteName("example.com/org/\(name):latest")
-        for vmDir in [try local.create(name), try oci.create(remoteName)] {
-          var vmConfig = config()
-          vmConfig.diskFormat = diskFormat
-          try vmConfig.save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-          XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-          // The diskutil stub simulates a locked ASIF disk without needing a running VM.
-          XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(
-            atPath: vmDir.diskURL.path,
-            contents: Data(repeating: 0, count: 4096)
-          ))
-          if diskFormat == .asif {
-            XCTAssertThrowsError(try vmDir.diskSizeBytes())
-          }
-        }
-      }
-
-      for sourceArguments in [[], ["--source", "local"], ["--source", "oci"]] {
-        let json = try await commandOutput(List.self, sourceArguments + ["--format", "json"])
-        let rows = try XCTUnwrap(JSONSerialization.jsonObject(with: Data(json.utf8)) as? [[String: Any]])
-        XCTAssertEqual(rows.count, sourceArguments.isEmpty ? 4 : 2)
-        for row in rows {
-          let name = try XCTUnwrap(row["Name"] as? String)
-          if name.contains("unavailable") {
-            XCTAssertTrue(row["Disk"] is NSNull)
-          } else {
-            XCTAssertEqual(row["Disk"] as? Int, 0)
-          }
-          XCTAssertEqual(row["State"] as? String, "stopped")
-          XCTAssertEqual(row["Running"] as? Bool, false)
-        }
-
-        let text = try await commandOutput(List.self, sourceArguments)
-        XCTAssertTrue(text.contains("unavailable"))
-        XCTAssertTrue(text.contains("healthy"))
-        XCTAssertTrue(text.contains("-"))
-
-        let quiet = try await commandOutput(List.self, sourceArguments + ["--quiet"])
-        XCTAssertEqual(quiet.split(separator: "\n").map(String.init), rows.compactMap { $0["Name"] as? String })
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGetSurvivesUnavailableDiskCapacity() async throws {
-    try await withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let previousPath = try installUnavailableDiskutil()
-      defer { restoreEnvironment("PATH", to: previousPath) }
-
-      let vmDir = try VMStorageLocal().create("unavailable")
-      var vmConfig = config()
-      vmConfig.diskFormat = .asif
-      try vmConfig.save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(
-        atPath: vmDir.diskURL.path,
-        contents: Data(repeating: 0, count: 4096)
-      ))
-      XCTAssertThrowsError(try vmDir.diskSizeBytes())
-
-      let json = try await commandOutput(Get.self, ["unavailable", "--format", "json"])
-      let info = try XCTUnwrap(JSONSerialization.jsonObject(with: Data(json.utf8)) as? [String: Any])
-      XCTAssertTrue(info["Disk"] is NSNull)
-      XCTAssertEqual(info["DiskFormat"] as? String, "asif")
-      XCTAssertEqual(info["State"] as? String, "stopped")
-
-      let text = try await commandOutput(Get.self, ["unavailable"])
-      XCTAssertTrue(text.contains("asif"))
-      XCTAssertTrue(text.contains("-"))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testNoUSBAccessoriesDoesNotEnableSuspendable() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let vmDir = try VMStorageLocal().create("no-usb-accessories")
-      try config().save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.diskURL.path, contents: Data()))
-
-      let command = try Run.parseAsRoot(["no-usb-accessories", "--no-usb-accessories"]) as! Run
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(command.noUSBAccessories)
-      XCTAssertFalse(command.suspendable)
-      XCTAssertFalse(command.noAudio)
-      XCTAssertFalse(command.noGraphics)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStandaloneDeleteDoesNotInitializeContentStore() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let vmDir = try VMStorageLocal().create("standalone")
-      try config().save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.diskURL.path, contents: Data()))
-
-      let contentStoreURL = try Config().tartCacheDir.appendingPathComponent("content", isDirectory: true)
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: contentStoreURL.path))
-
-      try vmDir.delete()
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: vmDir.baseURL.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: contentStoreURL.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testSetDiskRejectsStackedVMBeforeSavingConfig() async throws {
-    try await withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let vmDir = try VMStorageLocal().create("stacked")
-      let originalConfig = config()
-      try originalConfig.save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.manifestURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.overlayURL.path, contents: Data()))
-
-      let replacementURL = try temporaryDirectory().appendingPathComponent("replacement.img")
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: replacementURL.path, contents: Data("replacement".utf8)))
-
-      let command = try Set.parseAsRoot([
-        "stacked",
-        "--cpu", "4",
-        "--disk", replacementURL.path,
-      ]) as! Set
-
-      do {
-        try await command.run()
-        XCTFail("expected stacked disk replacement to be rejected")
-      } catch let error as ValidationError {
-        XCTAssertEqual(error.message, "--disk is not supported for VMs with a stacked disk")
-      }
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(try VMConfig(fromURL: vmDir.configURL).cpuCount, originalConfig.cpuCount)
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: vmDir.diskURL.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testRemoteAdditionalDiskRetainsTemporaryBackingFileLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let name = try RemoteName("example.com/org/image:latest")
-      let cachedImage = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: cachedImage.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: cachedImage.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(
-        atPath: cachedImage.diskURL.path,
-        contents: Data(repeating: 0, count: 4096)
-      ))
-
-      do {
-        let additionalDisk = try AdditionalDisk(parseFrom: name.description)
-        let entriesBeforeGC = try temporaryEntries()
-        XCTAssertEqual(entriesBeforeGC.count, 1)
-
-        try Config().gc()
-        XCTAssertEqual(try temporaryEntries(), entriesBeforeGC)
-
-        withExtendedLifetime(additionalDisk) {}
-      }
-
-      try Config().gc()
-      XCTAssertTrue(try temporaryEntries().isEmpty)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGarbageCollectionPreservesLockedTemporaryDirectory() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-      let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: temporaryVMDir.baseURL)
-      try lock.lock()
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(
-        atPath: temporaryVMDir.overlayURL.path,
-        contents: Data("overlay".utf8)
-      ))
-
-      try Config().gc()
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: temporaryVMDir.overlayURL.path))
-
-      try lock.unlock()
-      try Config().gc()
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: temporaryVMDir.baseURL.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  private func config() -> VMConfig {
-    VMConfig(
-      platform: Linux(),
-      cpuCountMin: 2,
-      memorySizeMin: 512 * 1024 * 1024,
-      diskFormat: .raw
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryEntries() throws -> [URL] {
-    try FileManager.default.contentsOfDirectory(
-      at: Config().tartTmpDir,
-      includingPropertiesForKeys: nil
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func installUnavailableDiskutil() throws -> String? {
-    let binDirectory = try temporaryDirectory()
-    let diskutilURL = binDirectory.appendingPathComponent("diskutil")
-    let script = """
-    #!/bin/sh
-    echo 'Resource temporarily unavailable' >&2
-    exit 1
-    """
-    try script.write(to: diskutilURL, atomically: true, encoding: .utf8)
-    try FileManager.default.setAttributes([.posixPermissions: 0o755], ofItemAtPath: diskutilURL.path)
-    let previousPath = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["PATH"]
-    setenv("PATH", binDirectory.path, 1)
-    return previousPath
-  }
-
-  private func commandOutput<Command: AsyncParsableCommand>(
-    _ commandType: Command.Type,
-    _ arguments: [String]
-  ) async throws -> String {
-    let outputURL = try temporaryDirectory().appendingPathComponent("stdout")
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: outputURL.path, contents: nil))
-    let output = try FileHandle(forWritingTo: outputURL)
-    defer { try? output.close() }
-
-    fflush(stdout)
-    let savedStdout = dup(STDOUT_FILENO)
-    defer {
-      fflush(stdout)
-      dup2(savedStdout, STDOUT_FILENO)
-      close(savedStdout)
-    }
-    dup2(output.fileDescriptor, STDOUT_FILENO)
-    var command = try Command.parseAsRoot(arguments) as! Command
-    try await command.run()
-    fflush(stdout)
-    return try String(contentsOf: outputURL, encoding: .utf8)
-  }
-
-  private func withTemporaryTartHome(_ body: () throws -> Void) throws {
-    let home = try temporaryDirectory()
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", home.path, 1)
-    defer { restoreEnvironment("TART_HOME", to: previousHome) }
-
-    try body()
-  }
-
-  private func withTemporaryTartHome(_ body: () async throws -> Void) async throws {
-    let home = try temporaryDirectory()
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", home.path, 1)
-    defer { restoreEnvironment("TART_HOME", to: previousHome) }
-
-    try await body()
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryDirectory() throws -> URL {
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: url, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    addTeardownBlock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-    }
-
-    return url
-  }
-
-  private func restoreEnvironment(_ name: String, to value: String?) {
-    if let value {
-      setenv(name, value, 1)
-    } else {
-      unsetenv(name)
-    }
-  }
-}
@@ -1,190 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class ContentStoreTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testCreatesDigestDirectoryDuringInitialization() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let contentURL = try store.contentURL(for: Digest.hash(Data()))
-
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: contentURL.deletingLastPathComponent().path))
-  }
-
-  func testInstallAndValidatedLookup() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let data = Data("base disk".utf8)
-    let digest = Digest.hash(data)
-    let temporaryURL = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-    try data.write(to: temporaryURL)
-
-    let installedURL = try store.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: digest)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(installedURL, try store.contentURL(for: digest))
-    XCTAssertEqual(try store.existingContentURL(for: digest), installedURL)
-  }
-
-  func testCorruptCacheEntryIsMiss() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let expectedDigest = Digest.hash(Data("expected".utf8))
-    let contentURL = try store.contentURL(for: expectedDigest)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: contentURL.deletingLastPathComponent(), withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-    try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: contentURL)
-
-    XCTAssertNil(try store.existingContentURL(for: expectedDigest))
-    XCTAssertEqual(try store.contentURLIfPresent(for: expectedDigest), contentURL)
-  }
-
-  func testResumableAndLockURLsAreStablePerDigest() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let firstDigest = Digest.hash(Data("first".utf8))
-    let secondDigest = Digest.hash(Data("second".utf8))
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try store.resumableContentURL(for: firstDigest),
-      try store.resumableContentURL(for: firstDigest)
-    )
-    XCTAssertNotEqual(
-      try store.resumableContentURL(for: firstDigest),
-      try store.resumableContentURL(for: secondDigest)
-    )
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try store.lockURL(for: firstDigest),
-      try store.lockURL(for: firstDigest)
-    )
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: try store.lockURL(for: firstDigest).path))
-  }
-
-  func testInstallReplacesCorruptEntry() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let data = Data("expected".utf8)
-    let digest = Digest.hash(data)
-    let contentURL = try store.contentURL(for: digest)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: contentURL.deletingLastPathComponent(), withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-    try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: contentURL)
-    let temporaryURL = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-    try data.write(to: temporaryURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(try store.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: digest), contentURL)
-    XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(contentURL), digest)
-  }
-
-  func testInstallPreservesExistingValidEntry() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let data = Data("expected".utf8)
-    let digest = Digest.hash(data)
-    let firstTemporaryURL = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-    try data.write(to: firstTemporaryURL)
-    let installedURL = try store.install(firstTemporaryURL, contentDigest: digest)
-    let secondTemporaryURL = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-    try data.write(to: secondTemporaryURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(try store.install(secondTemporaryURL, contentDigest: digest), installedURL)
-    XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: secondTemporaryURL.path))
-    XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(installedURL), digest)
-  }
-
-  func testConcurrentInstallsAcceptDigestValidWinner() throws {
-    try assertConcurrentInstalls(seedCorruptEntry: false)
-  }
-
-  func testConcurrentInstallsRepairCorruptEntry() throws {
-    try assertConcurrentInstalls(seedCorruptEntry: true)
-  }
-
-  func testInstallRejectsWrongContentDigest() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let expectedDigest = Digest.hash(Data("expected".utf8))
-    let temporaryURL = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: expectedDigest)
-    try Data("actual".utf8).write(to: temporaryURL)
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try store.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: expectedDigest)) { error in
-      guard case ContentStoreError.contentDigestMismatch(let expected, _) = error else {
-        return XCTFail("unexpected error: \(error)")
-      }
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(expected, expectedDigest)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testRejectsNonCanonicalDigest() throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try store.contentURL(for: "sha256:ABC")) { error in
-      XCTAssertEqual(error as? ContentStoreError, .invalidContentDigest("sha256:ABC"))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testContentURLUnderArbitraryRootHasNoSideEffects() throws {
-    let rootURL = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    addTeardownBlock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: rootURL)
-    }
-    let digest = Digest.hash(Data("content".utf8))
-
-    let contentStore = try temporaryStore()
-    let contentURL = try contentStore.contentURL(for: digest, under: rootURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      contentURL,
-      rootURL.appendingPathComponent("sha256", isDirectory: true)
-        .appendingPathComponent(String(digest.dropFirst("sha256:".count)))
-    )
-    XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: rootURL.path))
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryStore() throws -> ContentStore {
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    addTeardownBlock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-    }
-
-    return try ContentStore(baseURL: url)
-  }
-
-  private func assertConcurrentInstalls(seedCorruptEntry: Bool) throws {
-    let store = try temporaryStore()
-    let data = Data("expected".utf8)
-    let digest = Digest.hash(data)
-    let contentURL = try store.contentURL(for: digest)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: contentURL.deletingLastPathComponent(), withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-    if seedCorruptEntry {
-      try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: contentURL)
-    }
-
-    let temporaryURLs = try (0..<16).map { _ in
-      let url = try store.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-      try data.write(to: url)
-      return url
-    }
-    let errors = ErrorCollector()
-
-    DispatchQueue.concurrentPerform(iterations: temporaryURLs.count) { index in
-      do {
-        _ = try store.install(temporaryURLs[index], contentDigest: digest)
-      } catch {
-        errors.append(error)
-      }
-    }
-
-    XCTAssertTrue(errors.values.isEmpty, "unexpected install errors: \(errors.values)")
-    XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(contentURL), digest)
-    XCTAssertTrue(temporaryURLs.allSatisfy { !FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: $0.path) })
-  }
-
-  private final class ErrorCollector: @unchecked Sendable {
-    private let lock = NSLock()
-    private var errors: [Error] = []
-
-    var values: [Error] {
-      lock.lock()
-      defer { lock.unlock() }
-      return errors
-    }
-
-    func append(_ error: Error) {
-      lock.lock()
-      defer { lock.unlock() }
-      errors.append(error)
-    }
-  }
-}
@@ -1,96 +0,0 @@
-import NIO
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-// Avoid NSObject.bind and Tart's Darwin type shadowing the system function.
-private let bindTestSocket = bind
-
-@available(macOS 14, *)
-final class ControlSocketTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testInitializerCreatesControlSocketBeforeReturning() async throws {
-    let temporaryDirectory = try makeTemporaryDirectory()
-    let originalDirectory = FileManager.default.currentDirectoryPath
-    defer {
-      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(originalDirectory)
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryDirectory)
-    }
-
-    let socketURL = URL(fileURLWithPath: "control.sock", relativeTo: temporaryDirectory)
-    var controlSocket: ControlSocket? = try await ControlSocket(socketURL)
-    let eventLoopGroup = try XCTUnwrap(controlSocket?.eventLoopGroup)
-
-    do {
-      let serverChannel = try XCTUnwrap(controlSocket?.serverChannel)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: socketURL.path))
-
-      try await serverChannel.executeThenClose { _ in }
-    }
-
-    controlSocket = nil
-    try await eventLoopGroup.shutdownGracefully()
-  }
-
-  func testInitializerPropagatesControlSocketCreationFailure() async throws {
-    let temporaryDirectory = try makeTemporaryDirectory()
-    let originalDirectory = FileManager.default.currentDirectoryPath
-    defer {
-      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(originalDirectory)
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryDirectory)
-    }
-
-    let socketURL = URL(fileURLWithPath: "missing/control.sock", relativeTo: temporaryDirectory)
-
-    do {
-      _ = try await ControlSocket(socketURL)
-      XCTFail("Binding should fail when the socket's parent directory does not exist")
-    } catch {
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: socketURL.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testInitializerReplacesStaleSocketInLongEncodedPath() async throws {
-    let temporaryDirectory = try makeTemporaryDirectory()
-    let originalDirectory = FileManager.default.currentDirectoryPath
-    defer {
-      FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(originalDirectory)
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryDirectory)
-    }
-
-    let vmDirectory = temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(
-      "Tart Home %# 虚拟机 " + String(repeating: "v", count: 104), isDirectory: true
-    )
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: vmDirectory, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    let socketURL = URL(fileURLWithPath: "control.sock", relativeTo: vmDirectory)
-    XCTAssertGreaterThan(socketURL.path.utf8.count, 104)
-
-    // Closing a POSIX socket leaves its path behind, as exiting "tart run" does.
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(vmDirectory.path))
-    let expectedDirectory = FileManager.default.currentDirectoryPath
-    let address = try SocketAddress(unixDomainSocketPath: "control.sock")
-    let descriptor = socket(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0)
-    XCTAssertGreaterThanOrEqual(descriptor, 0)
-    XCTAssertEqual(address.withSockAddr { bindTestSocket(descriptor, $0, socklen_t($1)) }, 0)
-    XCTAssertEqual(close(descriptor), 0)
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.changeCurrentDirectoryPath(originalDirectory))
-
-    var controlSocket: ControlSocket? = try await ControlSocket(socketURL)
-    let eventLoopGroup = try XCTUnwrap(controlSocket?.eventLoopGroup)
-    do {
-      let serverChannel = try XCTUnwrap(controlSocket?.serverChannel)
-      XCTAssertEqual(FileManager.default.currentDirectoryPath, expectedDirectory)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: socketURL.path))
-      try await serverChannel.executeThenClose { _ in }
-    }
-    controlSocket = nil
-    try await eventLoopGroup.shutdownGracefully()
-  }
-
-  private func makeTemporaryDirectory() throws -> URL {
-    let directory = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(
-      UUID().uuidString,
-      isDirectory: true
-    )
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: directory, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    return directory
-  }
-}
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import Foundation
 import XCTest
@testable import tart

@@ -22,34 +21,4 @@ final class DigestTests: XCTestCase {

    XCTAssertEqual(Digest.hash(data), "sha256:d7a8fbb307d7809469ca9abcb0082e4f8d5651e46d3cdb762d02d0bf37c9e592")
  }
-
-  func testFileAndRangeHashingMatchDataHashing() throws {
-    let prefix = Data(repeating: 0x61, count: 4 * 1024 * 1024 + 17)
-    let range = Data("range".utf8)
-    let suffix = Data(repeating: 0x62, count: 23)
-    let data = prefix + range + suffix
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try data.write(to: url)
-    defer { try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url) }
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(url), Digest.hash(data))
-    XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(url, offset: UInt64(prefix.count), size: UInt64(range.count)), Digest.hash(range))
-  }
-
-  func testRangeHashingRejectsOutOfBoundsRanges() throws {
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try Data("range".utf8).write(to: url)
-    defer { try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url) }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Digest.hash(url, offset: 6, size: 0)) { error in
-      guard case DigestError.InvalidOffset = error else {
-        return XCTFail("unexpected error: \(error)")
-      }
-    }
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Digest.hash(url, offset: 1, size: UInt64.max)) { error in
-      guard case DigestError.InvalidSize = error else {
-        return XCTFail("unexpected error: \(error)")
-      }
-    }
-  }
 }
@@ -1,263 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-#if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-  import DiskImageKit
-
-  @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-  final class DiskImageStackTests: XCTestCase {
-    override func setUpWithError() throws {
-      try super.setUpWithError()
-
-      if #unavailable(macOS 27.0) {
-        throw XCTSkip("DiskImageKit tests require macOS 27 or newer")
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testCreatesAndAttachesRawBaseWithWritableOverlay() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL.path))
-
-      _ = try fixture.disk.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testCreatesAndAttachesASIFBaseWithPublishedOverlay() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .asif, publishedOverlayCount: 1)
-
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      _ = try fixture.disk.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testCreatesAndAttachesMultiplePublishedOverlays() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .asif, publishedOverlayCount: 2)
-
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      _ = try fixture.disk.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testCreatesAndAttachesLongPublishedOverlayChain() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .asif, publishedOverlayCount: 8)
-
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      _ = try fixture.disk.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testAttachesStackReadOnly() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-
-      _ = try fixture.disk.makeAttachment(readOnly: true)
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsMissingWritableOverlayWhenAttaching() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-
-      assertThrows(.writableOverlayMissing(fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL)) {
-        try fixture.disk.makeAttachment()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsExistingWritableOverlayWhenCreating() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL.path, contents: nil))
-
-      assertThrows(.writableOverlayAlreadyExists(fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL)) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsExistingCopyDestination() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-
-      let destinationURL = fixture.directory.appendingPathComponent("existing-overlay.asif")
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: destinationURL.path, contents: nil))
-
-      assertThrows(.writableOverlayAlreadyExists(destinationURL)) {
-        try fixture.disk.copyWritableOverlay(to: destinationURL)
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsNonASIFPublishedOverlay() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      let overlayURL = fixture.directory.appendingPathComponent("published-raw.img")
-      _ = try DiskImage(creating: .raw(url: overlayURL, blockCount: 8))
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: [
-          overlayURL,
-        ],
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: fixture.disk.blockSize,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidDiskImage(overlayURL, "overlay must use ASIF format")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsWrongBaseFormat() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: .asif,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: fixture.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: fixture.disk.blockSize,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidDiskImage(fixture.disk.baseURL, "base disk format does not match")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsBlockSizeMismatch() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: fixture.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: 4096,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidBlockLayout("immutable disk stack does not match manifest block size")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsUnsupportedBlockSize() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: fixture.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: 123,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidBlockLayout("unsupported stacked disk block size 123")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsManifestBlockCountMismatch() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: fixture.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: fixture.disk.blockSize,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount + 1
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidBlockLayout("immutable disk stack does not match manifest block count")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testCopiesAndGrowsWritableOverlay() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-
-      let copiedURL = fixture.directory.appendingPathComponent("copied-overlay.asif")
-      try fixture.disk.copyWritableOverlay(to: copiedURL)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: fixture.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: copiedURL,
-        blockSize: fixture.disk.blockSize,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-      try fixture.disk.growWritableOverlay(toBlockCount: 16)
-
-      let copied = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: copiedURL, mode: .readOnly))
-      XCTAssertEqual(copied.blockCount, 16)
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsOverlayFromDifferentASIFParent() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .asif)
-      let other = try Fixture(baseFormat: .asif, publishedOverlayCount: 1)
-      fixture.disk = DiskImageStack(
-        baseURL: fixture.disk.baseURL,
-        baseFormat: fixture.disk.baseFormat,
-        immutableOverlayURLs: other.disk.immutableOverlayURLs,
-        writableOverlayURL: fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL,
-        blockSize: fixture.disk.blockSize,
-        blockCount: fixture.disk.blockCount
-      )
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidDiskImage(other.disk.immutableOverlayURLs[0], "ASIF overlay is incompatible with its parent")) {
-        try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testRejectsWritableOverlayShrink() throws {
-      let fixture = try Fixture(baseFormat: .raw)
-      try fixture.disk.createWritableOverlay()
-
-      assertThrows(.invalidDiskImage(fixture.disk.writableOverlayURL, "ASIF overlay block count shrinks the stacked disk")) {
-        try fixture.disk.growWritableOverlay(toBlockCount: 4)
-      }
-    }
-
-    private func assertThrows<T>(
-      _ expected: DiskImageStackError,
-      operation: () throws -> T
-    ) {
-      XCTAssertThrowsError(try operation()) { error in
-        XCTAssertEqual(error as? DiskImageStackError, expected)
-      }
-    }
-
-    private final class Fixture {
-      let directory: URL
-      var disk: DiskImageStack
-
-      init(baseFormat: DiskImageFormat, publishedOverlayCount: Int = 0) throws {
-        directory = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-        try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: directory, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-
-        let baseURL = directory.appendingPathComponent("base.img")
-        switch baseFormat {
-        case .raw:
-          _ = try DiskImage(creating: .raw(url: baseURL, blockCount: 8))
-        case .asif:
-          _ = try DiskImage(creating: .asif(url: baseURL, blockCount: 8, blockSize: .bytes512))
-        }
-
-        var immutableOverlayURLs: [URL] = []
-        var image = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: baseURL, mode: .readOnly))
-        for index in 0..<publishedOverlayCount {
-          let overlayURL = directory.appendingPathComponent("published-\(index).asif")
-          let stack = try image.appending(.asifLayer(url: overlayURL, type: .overlay))
-          immutableOverlayURLs.append(overlayURL)
-          image = stack
-        }
-
-        disk = DiskImageStack(
-          baseURL: baseURL,
-          baseFormat: baseFormat,
-          immutableOverlayURLs: immutableOverlayURLs,
-          writableOverlayURL: directory.appendingPathComponent("overlay.asif"),
-          blockSize: 512,
-          blockCount: 8
-        )
-      }
-
-      deinit {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: directory)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-#endif
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class HumanReadableByteCountTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testUnknownByteCount() throws {
-    let unknown = HumanReadableByteCount(nil) { $0 / 1000 / 1000 / 1000 }
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(unknown.description, "-")
-    XCTAssertEqual(String(data: try JSONEncoder().encode(unknown), encoding: .utf8), "null")
-  }
-
-  func testTextAndJSONRepresentations() throws {
-    let integer = HumanReadableByteCount(51_400_000_000) { _ in 51 }
-    let string = HumanReadableByteCount(17_234_000_000) { _ in "17.234" }
-    let encoder = JSONEncoder()
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(string.description.compactMap(\.wholeNumberValue), [1, 7])
-    XCTAssertEqual(try JSONDecoder().decode(Int.self, from: encoder.encode(integer)), 51)
-    XCTAssertEqual(try JSONDecoder().decode(String.self, from: encoder.encode(string)), "17.234")
-  }
-}
@@ -1,152 +0,0 @@
-import Virtualization
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class InputDeviceConfigurationTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testLinuxUSBInputsCanBeDisabled() {
-    let configuration = VZVirtualMachineConfiguration()
-
-    VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: Linux())
-    XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.count, 1)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.contains { $0 is VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration })
-    XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 1)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration })
-
-    VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: Linux(), noUSBAccessories: true)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.isEmpty)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.isEmpty)
-
-    VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: Linux(), noUSBAccessories: true, noTrackpad: true)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.isEmpty)
-    XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.isEmpty)
-  }
-
-  #if arch(arm64)
-    func testMacOS13RetainsItsNativeTrackpad() {
-      let platform = MacInputPlatform(nativeKeyboard: false)
-      let configuration = VZVirtualMachineConfiguration()
-
-      VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: platform)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 2)
-
-      VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: platform, noUSBAccessories: true)
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.isEmpty)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZMacTrackpadConfiguration })
-    }
-
-    func testMacOS14RetainsBothNativeInputs() throws {
-      guard #available(macOS 14, *) else {
-        throw XCTSkip("Mac keyboards require macOS 14")
-      }
-
-      let configuration = VZVirtualMachineConfiguration()
-      VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: MacInputPlatform(nativeKeyboard: true), noUSBAccessories: true)
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.contains { $0 is VZMacKeyboardConfiguration })
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZMacTrackpadConfiguration })
-    }
-
-    func testInputFlagsStillSelectTheExpectedDevices() throws {
-      guard #available(macOS 14, *) else {
-        throw XCTSkip("Mac keyboards require macOS 14")
-      }
-
-      let platform = MacInputPlatform(nativeKeyboard: true)
-      for noUSBAccessories in [false, true] {
-        for noKeyboard in [false, true] {
-          for noPointer in [false, true] {
-            for noTrackpad in [false, true] {
-              let configuration = VZVirtualMachineConfiguration()
-              VM.configureInputDevices(
-                configuration,
-                platform: platform,
-                noUSBAccessories: noUSBAccessories,
-                noTrackpad: noTrackpad,
-                noPointer: noPointer,
-                noKeyboard: noKeyboard
-              )
-
-              XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.contains { $0 is VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration }, !noUSBAccessories && !noKeyboard)
-              XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.contains { $0 is VZMacKeyboardConfiguration }, !noKeyboard)
-              XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration }, !noUSBAccessories && !noPointer)
-              XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZMacTrackpadConfiguration }, !noPointer && !noTrackpad)
-            }
-          }
-        }
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testSuspendableFallbackCannotReintroduceUSBInputs() {
-      let configuration = VZVirtualMachineConfiguration()
-      let platform = MacInputPlatform(nativeKeyboard: false)
-      VM.configureInputDevices(configuration, platform: platform, suspendable: true)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.keyboards.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 2)
-
-      VM.configureInputDevices(
-        configuration,
-        platform: platform,
-        suspendable: true,
-        noUSBAccessories: true
-      )
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.keyboards.isEmpty)
-      XCTAssertEqual(configuration.pointingDevices.count, 1)
-      XCTAssertTrue(configuration.pointingDevices.contains { $0 is VZMacTrackpadConfiguration })
-    }
-  #endif
-}
-
-#if arch(arm64)
-  // Model macOS 13 and 14 input availability without requiring a second host.
-  private struct MacInputPlatform: PlatformSuspendable {
-    var nativeKeyboard: Bool
-
-    func os() -> OS { .darwin }
-
-    func bootLoader(nvramURL: URL) throws -> VZBootLoader {
-      try Linux().bootLoader(nvramURL: nvramURL)
-    }
-
-    func platform(nvramURL: URL, needsNestedVirtualization: Bool) throws -> VZPlatformConfiguration {
-      try Linux().platform(nvramURL: nvramURL, needsNestedVirtualization: needsNestedVirtualization)
-    }
-
-    func graphicsDevice(vmConfig: VMConfig) -> VZGraphicsDeviceConfiguration {
-      Linux().graphicsDevice(vmConfig: vmConfig)
-    }
-
-    func keyboards(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
-      var devices: [VZKeyboardConfiguration] = noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBKeyboardConfiguration()]
-      if nativeKeyboard, #available(macOS 14, *) {
-        devices.append(VZMacKeyboardConfiguration())
-      }
-      return devices
-    }
-
-    func pointingDevices(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
-      var devices: [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] = noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
-      devices.append(VZMacTrackpadConfiguration())
-      return devices
-    }
-
-    func pointingDevicesSimplified(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
-      noUSB ? [] : [VZUSBScreenCoordinatePointingDeviceConfiguration()]
-    }
-
-    func keyboardsSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZKeyboardConfiguration] {
-      if nativeKeyboard, #available(macOS 14, *) {
-        return [VZMacKeyboardConfiguration()]
-      }
-      return keyboards(noUSB: noUSB)
-    }
-
-    func pointingDevicesSuspendable(noUSB: Bool) -> [VZPointingDeviceConfiguration] {
-      nativeKeyboard ? [VZMacTrackpadConfiguration()] : pointingDevices(noUSB: noUSB)
-    }
-  }
-#endif
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ final class LayerizerTests: XCTestCase {
    do {
      registryRunner = try await RegistryRunner()
    } catch {
-      throw XCTSkip("Registry is unavailable: \(error)")
+      try XCTSkipIf(ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["CI"] == nil)
    }
  }

@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ final class LayerizerTests: XCTestCase {

  func testDiskV2() async throws {
    // Original disk file to be pushed to the registry
-    let originalDiskFileURL = try fileWithRandomData(sizeBytes: 1 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)
+    let originalDiskFileURL = try fileWithRandomData(sizeBytes: 5 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)
    addTeardownBlock {
      try FileManager.default.removeItem(at: originalDiskFileURL)
    }
@@ -36,14 +36,7 @@ final class LayerizerTests: XCTestCase {
    let pulledDiskFileURL = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)

    print("pushing disk...")
-    let diskLayers = try await DiskV2.push(
-      diskURL: originalDiskFileURL,
-      mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-      registry: registry,
-      chunkSizeMb: 0,
-      concurrency: 4,
-      progress: Progress()
-    )
+    let diskLayers = try await DiskV2.push(diskURL: originalDiskFileURL, registry: registry, chunkSizeMb: 0, concurrency: 4, progress: Progress())

    print("pulling disk...")
    try await DiskV2.pull(registry: registry, diskLayers: diskLayers, diskURL: pulledDiskFileURL, concurrency: 16, progress: Progress())
@@ -1,196 +0,0 @@
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class OCIManifestTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testFlatDiskRepresentation() throws {
-    let chunks = [chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")]
-    let representation = try manifest(diskDescriptors: chunks).tartDiskRepresentation()
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(representation, .flat(base: TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .base, chunks: chunks, contentDigest: nil)))
-  }
-
-  func testStackedDiskRepresentation() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let overlay0 = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:overlay", chunkCount: 2)
-    let overlay1 = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-1")
-    let representation = try manifest(diskDescriptors: [base, overlay0, overlay1]).tartDiskRepresentation()
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(representation, .stacked(
-      base: TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .base, chunks: [base], contentDigest: "sha256:base"),
-      overlays: [TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .asifOverlay, chunks: [overlay0, overlay1], contentDigest: "sha256:overlay")]
-    ))
-  }
-
-  func testDiskFileGroupUncompressedSize() {
-    let first = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")
-    let second = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-1")
-    XCTAssertEqual(TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .base, chunks: [first, second], contentDigest: nil).uncompressedSize(), 2)
-
-    var overflowing = first
-    overflowing.annotations?[uncompressedSizeAnnotation] = String(UInt64.max)
-    XCTAssertNil(TartDiskFileGroup(kind: .base, chunks: [overflowing, second], contentDigest: nil).uncompressedSize())
-  }
-
-  func testDiskContentDigests() throws {
-    let flatBase = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "flat", diskFileDigest: "sha256:flat")
-    XCTAssertEqual(try manifest(diskDescriptors: [flatBase]).diskContentDigests(), ["sha256:flat"])
-
-    let stackedBase = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let overlay = chunk(
-      mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType,
-      suffix: "overlay",
-      diskFileDigest: "sha256:overlay",
-      chunkCount: 1
-    )
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try manifest(diskDescriptors: [stackedBase, overlay]).diskContentDigests(),
-      ["sha256:base", "sha256:overlay"]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testStackedRepresentationRequiresBaseDigest() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")
-    let overlay = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:overlay", chunkCount: 1)
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("a stacked base disk needs a whole-file content digest"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base, overlay]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testBaseGroupRejectsMetadataAfterFirstChunk() throws {
-    let base0 = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let base1 = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-1", diskFileDigest: "sha256:other-base")
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("base disk metadata must appear only on its first chunk"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base0, base1]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testBaseGroupRejectsOverlayChunkCount() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base", chunkCount: 1)
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("base disk metadata must appear only on its first chunk"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testOverlayGroupRequiresDigestAndChunkCount() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let overlay = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-0")
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("an ASIF overlay needs a content digest and chunk count"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base, overlay]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testOverlayGroupRejectsInconsistentChunkCount() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let overlay = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:overlay", chunkCount: 2)
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("ASIF overlay chunk count is invalid"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base, overlay]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testDiskV2AfterOverlayIsRejected() throws {
-    let base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:base")
-    let overlay = chunk(mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType, suffix: "overlay-0", diskFileDigest: "sha256:overlay", chunkCount: 2)
-    let lateBase = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-1")
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidLayout("ASIF overlay chunks must be contiguous"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base, overlay, lateBase]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testChunkMetadataIsRequired() throws {
-    var base = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")
-    base.annotations = nil
-
-    assertManifestError(
-      .invalidDiskMetadata("disk chunks need uncompressed size and content digest"),
-      diskDescriptors: [base]
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testCanonicalConfigAndNVRAMOrderIsRequired() throws {
-    let disk = chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")
-    let manifest = OCIManifest(
-      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-      layers: [disk, configLayer(), nvramLayer()]
-    )
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation()) { error in
-      XCTAssertEqual(
-        error as? OCIManifestValidationError,
-        .invalidLayout("descriptors must be ordered as config, disk chunks, then NVRAM")
-      )
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testManifestBlockLayout() throws {
-    var manifest = manifest(diskDescriptors: [chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")])
-    manifest.annotations = [
-      uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation: "100000000000",
-      diskBlockSizeAnnotation: "512",
-    ]
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockSize(), 512)
-    XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockCount(), 195312500)
-  }
-
-  func testManifestRejectsInexactDerivedBlockCount() throws {
-    var manifest = manifest(diskDescriptors: [chunk(mediaType: diskV2MediaType, suffix: "base-0")])
-    manifest.annotations = [
-      uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation: "513",
-      diskBlockSizeAnnotation: "512",
-    ]
-
-    XCTAssertNil(manifest.diskBlockCount())
-  }
-
-  private func assertManifestError(_ expected: OCIManifestValidationError, diskDescriptors: [OCIManifestLayer]) {
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try manifest(diskDescriptors: diskDescriptors).tartDiskRepresentation()) { error in
-      XCTAssertEqual(error as? OCIManifestValidationError, expected)
-    }
-  }
-
-  private func manifest(diskDescriptors: [OCIManifestLayer]) -> OCIManifest {
-    OCIManifest(
-      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-      layers: [configLayer()] + diskDescriptors + [nvramLayer()]
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func configLayer() -> OCIManifestLayer {
-    OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:tart-config")
-  }
-
-  private func nvramLayer() -> OCIManifestLayer {
-    OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: nvramMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:nvram")
-  }
-
-  private func chunk(mediaType: String, suffix: String, diskFileDigest: String? = nil, chunkCount: Int? = nil) -> OCIManifestLayer {
-    var descriptor = OCIManifestLayer(
-      mediaType: mediaType,
-      size: 1,
-      digest: "sha256:\(suffix)",
-      uncompressedSize: 1,
-      uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:uncompressed-\(suffix)"
-    )
-
-    if let diskFileDigest {
-      descriptor.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = diskFileDigest
-    }
-    if let chunkCount {
-      descriptor.annotations?[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation] = String(chunkCount)
-    }
-
-    return descriptor
-  }
-}
@@ -1,88 +0,0 @@
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class RegistryHostTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testDockerHub() throws {
-    let credentialsProvider = RecordingCredentialsProvider()
-    let registry = try Registry(host: "docker.io", namespace: "org/repo",
-                                credentialsProviders: [credentialsProvider])
-
-    // docker.io redirects to Docker's website, so the API
-    // requests should go to registry-1.docker.io instead
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "https://registry-1.docker.io/v2/"))
-
-    // ...while naming and credentials lookup should still use the host specified by the user
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, "docker.io")
-    XCTAssertNil(try registry.lookupCredentials())
-    XCTAssertEqual(credentialsProvider.requestedHosts, ["docker.io"])
-  }
-
-  func testDockerHubIsMatchedCaseInsensitively() throws {
-    let credentialsProvider = RecordingCredentialsProvider()
-    let registry = try Registry(host: "Docker.IO", namespace: "org/repo",
-                                credentialsProviders: [credentialsProvider])
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "https://registry-1.docker.io/v2/"))
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, "Docker.IO")
-    XCTAssertNil(try registry.lookupCredentials())
-    XCTAssertEqual(credentialsProvider.requestedHosts, ["Docker.IO"])
-  }
-
-  func testDockerHubWithExplicitPort() throws {
-    for host in ["docker.io:443", "DOCKER.IO:443"] {
-      let registry = try Registry(host: host, namespace: "org/repo")
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "https://registry-1.docker.io:443/v2/"))
-      XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, host)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testOtherHostsAreUnchanged() throws {
-    for host in ["ghcr.io", "index.docker.io", "registry-1.docker.io", "registry.hub.docker.com", "127.0.0.1:8080"] {
-      let registry = try Registry(host: host, namespace: "org/repo")
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "https://\(host)/v2/"))
-      XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, host)
-    }
-
-    let registry = try Registry(host: "127.0.0.1:5000", namespace: "org/repo", insecure: true)
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "http://127.0.0.1:5000/v2/"))
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, "127.0.0.1:5000")
-  }
-
-  func testHostPortIsNormalized() throws {
-    // Credentials stored for "127.0.0.1:5000" should still be found
-    // when the port is written with a leading zero
-    let credentialsProvider = RecordingCredentialsProvider(credentials: ["127.0.0.1:5000": ("user", "password")])
-    let registry = try Registry(host: "127.0.0.1:05000", namespace: "org/repo", insecure: true,
-                                credentialsProviders: [credentialsProvider])
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.baseURL, URL(string: "http://127.0.0.1:05000/v2/"))
-    XCTAssertEqual(registry.host, "127.0.0.1:5000")
-
-    let (user, password) = try XCTUnwrap(registry.lookupCredentials())
-    XCTAssertEqual(user, "user")
-    XCTAssertEqual(password, "password")
-    XCTAssertEqual(credentialsProvider.requestedHosts, ["127.0.0.1:5000"])
-  }
-}
-
-fileprivate class RecordingCredentialsProvider: CredentialsProvider {
-  let userFriendlyName = "recording credentials provider"
-
-  let credentials: [String: (String, String)]
-  var requestedHosts: [String] = []
-
-  init(credentials: [String: (String, String)] = [:]) {
-    self.credentials = credentials
-  }
-
-  func retrieve(host: String) throws -> (String, String)? {
-    requestedHosts.append(host)
-
-    return credentials[host]
-  }
-
-  func store(host: String, user: String, password: String) throws {
-  }
-}
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ final class RegistryTests: XCTestCase {
    do {
      registryRunner = try await RegistryRunner()
    } catch {
-      throw XCTSkip("Registry is unavailable: \(error)")
+      try XCTSkipIf(ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["CI"] == nil)
    }
  }

@@ -1,183 +0,0 @@
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-import Semaphore
-
-final class SoftnetControlFDTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testConnectedUnixStreamSocketIsAccepted() throws {
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0, &fds), 0)
-    defer {
-      close(fds[0])
-      close(fds[1])
-    }
-
-    XCTAssertNoThrow(try Softnet.validateControlFD(fds[0]))
-  }
-
-  func testUnixDatagramSocketIsRejected() throws {
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_DGRAM, 0, &fds), 0)
-    defer {
-      close(fds[0])
-      close(fds[1])
-    }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(fds[0]))
-  }
-
-  func testUnconnectedUnixStreamSocketIsRejected() throws {
-    let fd = socket(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0)
-    XCTAssertGreaterThan(fd, STDERR_FILENO)
-    defer { close(fd) }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(fd))
-  }
-
-  func testPipeIsRejected() throws {
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(pipe(&fds), 0)
-    defer {
-      close(fds[0])
-      close(fds[1])
-    }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(fds[0]))
-  }
-
-  func testStandardDescriptorsAreRejected() throws {
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(STDIN_FILENO))
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(STDOUT_FILENO))
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet.validateControlFD(STDERR_FILENO))
-  }
-
-  func testStandardDescriptorsRemainOpenWhenInitializationFails() throws {
-    for fd in [STDIN_FILENO, STDOUT_FILENO, STDERR_FILENO] {
-      let flags = fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)
-      XCTAssertNotEqual(flags, -1)
-
-      XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet(vmMACAddress: "02:00:00:00:00:01", controlFD: fd))
-      XCTAssertEqual(fcntl(fd, F_GETFD), flags)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testControlChannelIsPassedToSoftnetAndVMFDRemainsDatagram() async throws {
-    let temporaryDirectory = URL(fileURLWithPath: NSTemporaryDirectory()).appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: temporaryDirectory, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    defer { try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryDirectory) }
-
-    let executable = temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent("softnet")
-    let script = """
-    #!/usr/bin/env python3
-    import socket
-    import sys
-
-    assert sys.argv[1:] == ["--vm-fd", "0", "--vm-mac-address", "02:00:00:00:00:01", "--control-fd", "1"]
-    vm = socket.socket(fileno=0)
-    control = socket.socket(fileno=1)
-    assert vm.family == socket.AF_UNIX and vm.type == socket.SOCK_DGRAM
-    assert control.family == socket.AF_UNIX and control.type == socket.SOCK_STREAM
-    assert control.recv(4096) == b"softnet.policy.set\\n"
-    control.sendall(b"ok\\n")
-    """
-    try script.write(to: executable, atomically: true, encoding: .utf8)
-    try FileManager.default.setAttributes([.posixPermissions: 0o755], ofItemAtPath: executable.path)
-
-    let previousPath = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["PATH"] ?? ""
-    setenv("PATH", "\(temporaryDirectory.path):\(previousPath)", 1)
-    defer { setenv("PATH", previousPath, 1) }
-
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0, &fds), 0)
-    defer { close(fds[1]) }
-
-    var timeout = timeval(tv_sec: 5, tv_usec: 0)
-    XCTAssertEqual(setsockopt(fds[1], SOL_SOCKET, SO_RCVTIMEO, &timeout, socklen_t(MemoryLayout<timeval>.size)), 0)
-
-    let semaphore = AsyncSemaphore(value: 0)
-    let softnet = try Softnet(vmMACAddress: "02:00:00:00:00:01", controlFD: fds[0])
-    try softnet.run(semaphore)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(fcntl(fds[0], F_GETFD), -1)
-    XCTAssertEqual(errno, EBADF)
-
-    let request = Array("softnet.policy.set\n".utf8)
-    XCTAssertEqual(request.withUnsafeBytes { send(fds[1], $0.baseAddress, $0.count, 0) }, request.count)
-
-    var response = [UInt8](repeating: 0, count: 128)
-    let received = recv(fds[1], &response, response.count, 0)
-    XCTAssertGreaterThan(received, 0)
-    XCTAssertEqual(String(decoding: response.prefix(Int(max(received, 0))), as: UTF8.self), "ok\n")
-
-    await semaphore.wait()
-  }
-
-  func testControlFDIsClosedWhenSoftnetInitializationFails() throws {
-    let previousPath = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["PATH"] ?? ""
-    setenv("PATH", "/this/path/does/not/exist", 1)
-    defer { setenv("PATH", previousPath, 1) }
-
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0, &fds), 0)
-    defer { close(fds[1]) }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet(vmMACAddress: "02:00:00:00:00:01", controlFD: fds[0]))
-    XCTAssertEqual(fcntl(fds[0], F_GETFD), -1)
-    XCTAssertEqual(errno, EBADF)
-  }
-
-  func testControlFDIsClosedWhenSoftnetValidationFails() throws {
-    var fds: [Int32] = [-1, -1]
-    XCTAssertEqual(socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_DGRAM, 0, &fds), 0)
-    defer { close(fds[1]) }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try Softnet(vmMACAddress: "02:00:00:00:00:01", controlFD: fds[0]))
-    XCTAssertEqual(fcntl(fds[0], F_GETFD), -1)
-    XCTAssertEqual(errno, EBADF)
-  }
-
-  func testControlFDImpliesSoftnet() throws {
-    let temporaryHome = try createTemporaryTartHome()
-    defer { try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryHome) }
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", temporaryHome.path, 1)
-    defer { restoreEnvironment("TART_HOME", value: previousHome) }
-
-    let command = try Run.parse(["vm", "--net-softnet-control-fd", "3"])
-
-    XCTAssertTrue(command.netSoftnet)
-    XCTAssertEqual(command.netSoftnetControlFd, 3)
-  }
-
-  func testControlFDIsRejectedWithHostNetworking() throws {
-    let temporaryHome = try createTemporaryTartHome()
-    defer { try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: temporaryHome) }
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", temporaryHome.path, 1)
-    defer { restoreEnvironment("TART_HOME", value: previousHome) }
-
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(
-      try Run.parse(["vm", "--net-host", "--net-softnet-control-fd", "3"])
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func createTemporaryTartHome() throws -> URL {
-    let temporaryHome = URL(fileURLWithPath: NSTemporaryDirectory()).appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    let vm = temporaryHome.appendingPathComponent("vms/vm")
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: vm, withIntermediateDirectories: true)
-
-    for name in ["config.json", "disk.img", "nvram.bin"] {
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vm.appendingPathComponent(name).path, contents: nil))
-    }
-
-    return temporaryHome
-  }
-
-  private func restoreEnvironment(_ name: String, value: String?) {
-    if let value = value {
-      setenv(name, value, 1)
-    } else {
-      unsetenv(name)
-    }
-  }
-}
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ class RegistryRunner {
    let stdoutPipe = Pipe()

    let proc = Process()
-    proc.executableURL = URL(fileURLWithPath: "/opt/homebrew/bin/docker")
+    proc.executableURL = URL(fileURLWithPath: "/usr/local/bin/docker")
    proc.arguments = arguments
    proc.standardOutput = stdoutPipe
    try proc.run()
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ class RegistryRunner {

  init() async throws {
    // Start container
-    let container = try Self.dockerCmd("run", "-d", "--rm", "-p", "127.0.0.1::5000", "registry:2")
+    let container = try Self.dockerCmd("run", "-d", "--rm", "-p", "127.0.0.1:0:5000", "registry:2")
      .trimmingCharacters(in: CharacterSet.newlines)
    containerID = container

@@ -1,359 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-#if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-  import DiskImageKit
-
-  @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-  final class VMDirectoryDiskImageStackTests: XCTestCase {
-    override func setUpWithError() throws {
-      try super.setUpWithError()
-
-      if #unavailable(macOS 27.0) {
-        throw XCTSkip("DiskImageKit tests require macOS 27 or newer")
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testBaseBlockLayoutReadsRawAndASIFImages() throws {
-      let directory = try temporaryDirectory()
-      let rawURL = directory.appendingPathComponent("base.raw")
-      let asifURL = directory.appendingPathComponent("base.asif")
-      _ = try DiskImage(creating: .raw(url: rawURL, blockCount: 8))
-      _ = try DiskImage(creating: .asif(url: asifURL, blockCount: 16, blockSize: .bytes512))
-
-      XCTAssertEqual(try DiskImageStack.baseBlockLayout(at: rawURL, expectedFormat: .raw).blockCount, 8)
-      XCTAssertEqual(try DiskImageStack.baseBlockLayout(at: asifURL, expectedFormat: .asif).blockCount, 16)
-    }
-
-    func testCloneAsStackedBasePinsFlatManifestAndCreatesOverlay() throws {
-      let contentStore = try temporaryContentStore()
-      let source = try flatSource()
-      let destination = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-      try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: destination, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(destination.isStackedVM)
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: destination.diskURL.path))
-
-      let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(source.diskURL)
-      let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: destination.manifestURL))
-      guard case .flat(let base) = try manifest.tartDiskRepresentation() else {
-        return XCTFail("expected a pinned base-only manifest")
-      }
-      XCTAssertEqual(base.contentDigest, contentDigest)
-      XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockSize(), 512)
-      XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockCount(), 8)
-
-      let stack = try destination.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertEqual(stack.baseURL, try contentStore.contentURL(for: contentDigest))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: destination.overlayURL.path))
-    }
-
-    func testCloneAsStackedBaseSupportsASIFDisk() throws {
-      let contentStore = try temporaryContentStore()
-      let source = try flatSource(diskFormat: .asif)
-      let destination = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-      try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: destination, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      let stack = try destination.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertEqual(stack.baseFormat, .asif)
-      XCTAssertTrue(destination.isStackedVM)
-      _ = try stack.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testStackedCloneCanCopyOrCreateWritableOverlay() throws {
-      let contentStore = try temporaryContentStore()
-      let source = try flatSource()
-      let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      let copied = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try stacked.cloneStacked(to: copied, copyWritableOverlay: true, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(copied.overlayURL), try Digest.hash(stacked.overlayURL))
-
-      let fresh = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try stacked.cloneStacked(to: fresh, copyWritableOverlay: false, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertTrue(fresh.isStackedVM)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: fresh.overlayURL.path))
-    }
-
-    func testStackedRemoteAdditionalDiskRetainsTemporaryVM() throws {
-      try withTemporaryTartHome {
-        let source = try flatSource()
-        let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false)
-
-        let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-        let name = try RemoteName("example.com/org/image:latest")
-        let cachedImage = try storage.create(name)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.configURL, to: cachedImage.configURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.nvramURL, to: cachedImage.nvramURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.manifestURL, to: cachedImage.manifestURL)
-
-        do {
-          let additionalDisk = try AdditionalDisk(parseFrom: name.description)
-          let entries = try temporaryEntries()
-          XCTAssertEqual(entries.count, 1)
-          XCTAssertTrue(VMDirectory(baseURL: entries[0]).isStackedVM)
-
-          try Config().gc()
-          XCTAssertEqual(try temporaryEntries(), entries)
-
-          withExtendedLifetime(additionalDisk) {}
-        }
-
-        try Config().gc()
-        XCTAssertTrue(try temporaryEntries().isEmpty)
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testResizeDiskGrowsWritableOverlayAndPreservesParentGeometry() throws {
-      let contentStore = try temporaryContentStore()
-      let source = try flatSource()
-      let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      try stacked.resizeDisk(1, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      let image = try DiskImage(opening: .open(url: stacked.overlayURL, mode: .readOnly))
-      XCTAssertEqual(image.blockCount, 1_000_000_000 / 512)
-      XCTAssertEqual(try stacked.diskSizeBytes(), 1_000_000_000)
-
-      let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: stacked.manifestURL))
-      XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockSize(), 512)
-      XCTAssertEqual(manifest.diskBlockCount(), 8)
-
-      _ = try stacked.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore).makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    func testStackedArchiveRoundTripsImmutableContentAndOverlay() throws {
-      try withTemporaryTartHome {
-        let source = try flatSource()
-        let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false)
-
-        let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(source.diskURL)
-        let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-        let archivedOverlayDigest = try Digest.hash(stacked.overlayURL)
-        let archiveURL = try temporaryDirectory().appendingPathComponent("stacked.tvm")
-        try stacked.exportToArchive(path: archiveURL.path)
-
-        let cachedBaseURL = try XCTUnwrap(try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-        // Import must repair a corrupt cache entry from the valid archive
-        // instead of discarding the archive copy as an apparent cache hit.
-        try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: cachedBaseURL)
-        XCTAssertNil(try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-
-        let imported = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try imported.importFromArchive(path: archiveURL.path)
-
-        XCTAssertTrue(imported.isStackedVM)
-        XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(imported.overlayURL), archivedOverlayDigest)
-        XCTAssertNotNil(try contentStore.existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-        _ = try imported.diskImageStack().makeAttachment()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testStackedArchiveRejectsCorruptImmutableContent() throws {
-      try withTemporaryTartHome {
-        let source = try flatSource()
-        let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false)
-
-        let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(source.diskURL)
-        let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-        let cachedBaseURL = try XCTUnwrap(try contentStore.contentURLIfPresent(for: contentDigest))
-        try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: cachedBaseURL)
-
-        let archiveURL = try temporaryDirectory().appendingPathComponent("stacked.tvm")
-        XCTAssertThrowsError(try stacked.exportToArchive(path: archiveURL.path)) { error in
-          guard case RuntimeError.ExportFailed(let message) = error else {
-            return XCTFail("unexpected error: \(error)")
-          }
-          XCTAssertEqual(message, "VM is missing cached disk content \(contentDigest)")
-        }
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testStackedOCIArchiveSurvivesConcurrentRecordDeletion() throws {
-      try withTemporaryTartHome {
-        let source = try flatSource()
-        let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false)
-
-        let manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: stacked.manifestURL))
-        let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-        let record = try storage.create(RemoteName(
-          host: "example.com",
-          namespace: "org/image",
-          reference: Reference(digest: try manifest.digest())
-        ))
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.configURL, to: record.configURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.nvramURL, to: record.nvramURL)
-        try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: stacked.manifestURL, to: record.manifestURL)
-        XCTAssertTrue(record.isStackedCachedImage)
-
-        let archiveURL = try temporaryDirectory().appendingPathComponent("stacked-race.tvm")
-        let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-        let lockHeld = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-        let releaseLock = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-        let exportStarted = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-        let exportFinished = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-        let deletionStarted = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-        let deletionFinished = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-
-        DispatchQueue.global().async {
-          try? contentStore.withPruneLock {
-            lockHeld.signal()
-            releaseLock.wait()
-          }
-        }
-        XCTAssertEqual(lockHeld.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-
-        // Queue export first so it is the next prune-lock waiter, then queue
-        // deletion behind it. Export must finish staging everything it needs
-        // before deletion can remove the source cached image.
-        DispatchQueue.global().async {
-          exportStarted.signal()
-          try? record.exportToArchive(path: archiveURL.path)
-          exportFinished.signal()
-        }
-        XCTAssertEqual(exportStarted.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-        Thread.sleep(forTimeInterval: 0.1)
-
-        DispatchQueue.global().async {
-          deletionStarted.signal()
-          try? record.delete()
-          deletionFinished.signal()
-        }
-        XCTAssertEqual(deletionStarted.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-        XCTAssertEqual(exportFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 0.1), .timedOut)
-        XCTAssertEqual(deletionFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 0.1), .timedOut)
-
-        releaseLock.signal()
-        XCTAssertEqual(exportFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 5), .success)
-        XCTAssertEqual(deletionFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 5), .success)
-        XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: record.baseURL.path))
-
-        let imported = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try imported.importFromArchive(path: archiveURL.path)
-        XCTAssertTrue(imported.isStackedVM)
-        _ = try imported.diskImageStack().makeAttachment()
-      }
-    }
-
-    func testResolvesPublishedOverlayFromManifestAndCache() throws {
-      let contentStore = try temporaryContentStore()
-      let source = try flatSource()
-      let baseOnly = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: baseOnly, generateMAC: false, contentStore: contentStore)
-
-      let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(baseOnly.overlayURL)
-      let temporaryContentURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: baseOnly.overlayURL, to: temporaryContentURL)
-      _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryContentURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-
-      var manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: baseOnly.manifestURL))
-      var overlay = OCIManifestLayer(
-        mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType,
-        size: 1,
-        digest: "sha256:overlay-transport",
-        uncompressedSize: 1,
-        uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:overlay-chunk"
-      )
-      overlay.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = contentDigest
-      overlay.annotations?[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation] = "1"
-      manifest.layers.insert(overlay, at: manifest.layers.count - 1)
-
-      let destination = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: baseOnly.configURL, to: destination.configURL)
-      try FileManager.default.copyItem(at: baseOnly.nvramURL, to: destination.nvramURL)
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: destination.manifestURL)
-
-      let stack = try destination.diskImageStack(contentStore: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertEqual(stack.immutableOverlayURLs, [try contentStore.contentURL(for: contentDigest)])
-      try stack.createWritableOverlay()
-      _ = try stack.makeAttachment()
-    }
-
-    private func flatSource(diskFormat: DiskImageFormat = .raw) throws -> VMDirectory {
-      let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      let config = VMConfig(
-        platform: Linux(),
-        cpuCountMin: 2,
-        memorySizeMin: 512 * 1024 * 1024,
-        diskFormat: diskFormat
-      )
-      try config.save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      switch diskFormat {
-      case .raw:
-        _ = try DiskImage(creating: .raw(url: vmDir.diskURL, blockCount: 8))
-      case .asif:
-        _ = try DiskImage(creating: .asif(url: vmDir.diskURL, blockCount: 8, blockSize: .bytes512))
-      }
-
-      let diskChunk = OCIManifestLayer(
-        mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-        size: 1,
-        digest: "sha256:transport",
-        uncompressedSize: 4096,
-        uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:chunk"
-      )
-      let manifest = OCIManifest(
-        config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-        layers: [
-          OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:config"),
-          diskChunk,
-          OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: nvramMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:nvram"),
-        ]
-      )
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-      return vmDir
-    }
-
-    private func temporaryContentStore() throws -> ContentStore {
-      let url = try temporaryDirectory()
-      return try ContentStore(baseURL: url)
-    }
-
-    private func temporaryEntries() throws -> [URL] {
-      try FileManager.default.contentsOfDirectory(
-        at: Config().tartTmpDir,
-        includingPropertiesForKeys: nil
-      )
-    }
-
-    private func withTemporaryTartHome(_ body: () throws -> Void) throws {
-      let home = try temporaryDirectory()
-      let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-      setenv("TART_HOME", home.path, 1)
-      defer {
-        if let previousHome {
-          setenv("TART_HOME", previousHome, 1)
-        } else {
-          unsetenv("TART_HOME")
-        }
-      }
-
-      try body()
-    }
-
-    private func temporaryVMDirectory() throws -> VMDirectory {
-      VMDirectory(baseURL: try temporaryDirectory())
-    }
-
-    private func temporaryDirectory() throws -> URL {
-      let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-      try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: url, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-      addTeardownBlock {
-        try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-      }
-
-      return url
-    }
-  }
-#endif
@@ -1,154 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-final class VMDirectoryLayoutTests: XCTestCase {
-  func testStandaloneLayoutWithPinnedManifest() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try touch(vmDir.configURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.diskURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(vmDir.layout, .standalone)
-    XCTAssertTrue(vmDir.initialized)
-    XCTAssertTrue(vmDir.isCachedImage)
-    XCTAssertNoThrow(try vmDir.validateCachedImage(userFriendlyName: "standalone"))
-  }
-
-  func testStackedVMLayout() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try touch(vmDir.configURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.manifestURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.overlayURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(vmDir.layout, .stackedLocal)
-    XCTAssertTrue(vmDir.initialized)
-    XCTAssertFalse(vmDir.isCachedImage)
-  }
-
-  func testStackedCachedImageLayout() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try touch(vmDir.configURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(vmDir.layout, .stackedOCIRecord)
-    XCTAssertFalse(vmDir.initialized)
-    XCTAssertTrue(vmDir.isCachedImage)
-    XCTAssertNoThrow(try vmDir.validateCachedImage(userFriendlyName: "stacked"))
-  }
-
-  func testAmbiguousDiskAndOverlayIsNotInitialized() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try touch(vmDir.configURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.diskURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.manifestURL)
-    try touch(vmDir.overlayURL)
-
-    XCTAssertNil(vmDir.layout)
-    XCTAssertFalse(vmDir.initialized)
-    XCTAssertFalse(vmDir.isCachedImage)
-  }
-
-  func testStackedVMAccountingUsesOverlay() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try Data("config".utf8).write(to: vmDir.configURL)
-    try Data("nvram".utf8).write(to: vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try Data("overlay".utf8).write(to: vmDir.overlayURL)
-    try stackedManifest(blockSize: 512, blockCount: 8).toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try vmDir.sizeBytes(),
-      try vmDir.configURL.sizeBytes() + vmDir.overlayURL.sizeBytes() + vmDir.nvramURL.sizeBytes()
-    )
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes(),
-      try vmDir.configURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + vmDir.overlayURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + vmDir.nvramURL.allocatedSizeBytes()
-    )
-  }
-
-  func testStackedCachedImageAccountingUsesManifestBlockLayout() throws {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-
-    try Data("config".utf8).write(to: vmDir.configURL)
-    try Data("nvram".utf8).write(to: vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try stackedManifest(blockSize: 512, blockCount: 8).toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try vmDir.sizeBytes(),
-      try vmDir.configURL.sizeBytes() + vmDir.nvramURL.sizeBytes()
-    )
-    XCTAssertEqual(
-      try vmDir.allocatedSizeBytes(),
-      try vmDir.configURL.allocatedSizeBytes() + vmDir.nvramURL.allocatedSizeBytes()
-    )
-    XCTAssertEqual(try vmDir.diskSizeBytes(), 4096)
-  }
-
-  func testStackedArchiveRequiresMacOS27() throws {
-    if #available(macOS 27.0, *) {
-      throw XCTSkip("macOS 26 compatibility test")
-    }
-
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-    try Data("config".utf8).write(to: vmDir.configURL)
-    try Data("nvram".utf8).write(to: vmDir.nvramURL)
-    try Data("overlay".utf8).write(to: vmDir.overlayURL)
-    try stackedManifest(blockSize: 512, blockCount: 8).toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-    let archiveURL = try temporaryVMDirectory().baseURL.appendingPathComponent("stacked.tvm")
-    XCTAssertThrowsError(try vmDir.exportToArchive(path: archiveURL.path)) { error in
-      guard case DiskImageStackError.unavailable = error else {
-        return XCTFail("unexpected error: \(error)")
-      }
-    }
-    XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: archiveURL.path))
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryVMDirectory() throws -> VMDirectory {
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: url, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    addTeardownBlock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-    }
-
-    return VMDirectory(baseURL: url)
-  }
-
-  private func touch(_ url: URL) throws {
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: url.path, contents: Data()))
-  }
-
-  private func stackedManifest(blockSize: UInt64, blockCount: UInt64) -> OCIManifest {
-    var disk = OCIManifestLayer(
-      mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-      size: 1,
-      digest: "sha256:transport",
-      uncompressedSize: blockSize * blockCount,
-      uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:chunk"
-    )
-    disk.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = "sha256:base"
-
-    var manifest = OCIManifest(
-      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-      layers: [
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:config"),
-        disk,
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: nvramMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:nvram"),
-      ]
-    )
-    manifest.annotations = [
-      uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation: String(blockSize * blockCount),
-      diskBlockSizeAnnotation: String(blockSize),
-    ]
-
-    return manifest
-  }
-}
@@ -1,974 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import XCTest
-@testable import tart
-
-#if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-  import DiskImageKit
-#endif
-
-final class VMStorageOCITests: XCTestCase {
-  func testPopulateStandalonePushedImageCachesDiskAndManifest() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let source = try standaloneSource(diskData: Data("disk".utf8))
-      let manifest = try flatManifest()
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      try storage.populate(name, from: source, manifest: manifest)
-
-      let cached = try storage.open(name)
-      XCTAssertTrue(cached.isStandalone)
-      XCTAssertEqual(try Data(contentsOf: cached.diskURL), Data("disk".utf8))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: cached.manifestURL)), manifest)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStackedCloneRequiresManifestForLegacyStandaloneCachedImage() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let manifest = try flatManifest()
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.diskURL.path, contents: Data()))
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(name))
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(name, requireManifest: true))
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest))
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest, requireManifest: true))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testCloneCacheCheckRejectsMissingOrWrongSizedStackedContent() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let baseData = Data("base".utf8)
-      let overlayData = Data("overlay".utf8)
-      let baseDigest = Digest.hash(baseData)
-      let overlayDigest = Digest.hash(overlayData)
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseDigest,
-        overlayContentDigest: overlayDigest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(baseData.count),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(overlayData.count)
-      )
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(name))
-
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      try installContent(baseData, contentDigest: baseDigest, into: contentStore)
-      try installContent(overlayData, contentDigest: overlayDigest, into: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(name))
-
-      try Data("bad".utf8).write(to: try contentStore.contentURL(for: overlayDigest))
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasUsableCachedImageForClone(name))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testListIncludesStackedCachedImage() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest()
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.list().contains { $0.0 == name.description })
-      XCTAssertEqual(try record.diskSizeBytes(), 4096)
-      XCTAssertNoThrow(try record.allocatedSizeBytes())
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStackedCacheHitRequiresExpectedContentSizes() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let baseData = Data(repeating: 0x41, count: 10)
-      let overlayData = Data(repeating: 0x42, count: 20)
-      let baseDigest = Digest.hash(baseData)
-      let overlayDigest = Digest.hash(overlayData)
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseDigest,
-        overlayContentDigest: overlayDigest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: 10,
-        overlayUncompressedSize: 20
-      )
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try storage.requiredDiskStorageBytes(for: manifest), 30)
-
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      try installContent(baseData, contentDigest: baseDigest, into: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try storage.requiredDiskStorageBytes(for: manifest), 20)
-
-      try installContent(overlayData, contentDigest: overlayDigest, into: contentStore)
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try storage.requiredDiskStorageBytes(for: manifest), 0)
-
-      let overlayURL = try contentStore.contentURL(for: overlayDigest)
-      try Data("corrupt".utf8).write(to: overlayURL)
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasCompleteCachedImage(name, manifest: manifest))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try storage.requiredDiskStorageBytes(for: manifest), 20)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStackedPullReusesPreviouslyPulledStandaloneDisk() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let diskData = Data([0])
-      let contentDigest = Digest.hash(diskData)
-      let flatManifest = try flatManifest()
-      let flatName = try digestName(for: flatManifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let flatRecord = try storage.create(flatName)
-      try config().save(toURL: flatRecord.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: flatRecord.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try diskData.write(to: flatRecord.diskURL)
-      try flatManifest.toJSON().write(to: flatRecord.manifestURL)
-
-      let stackedManifest = try stackedManifest(baseContentDigest: contentDigest)
-      XCTAssertNil(try ContentStore().existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-
-      try storage.reuseStandaloneDiskForStackedBaseIfPossible(stackedManifest)
-
-      let reusedURL = try XCTUnwrap(try ContentStore().existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-      XCTAssertEqual(try Data(contentsOf: reusedURL), diskData)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStackedPullDoesNotRehashInstalledBaseBeforeReuse() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentDigest = Digest.hash(Data("base".utf8))
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest(baseContentDigest: contentDigest)
-      let contentURL = try ContentStore().contentURL(for: contentDigest)
-
-      // Hashing this path would throw. Once an entry is published, this
-      // fast path must trust its presence and let normal pull validation
-      // repair unusable content later.
-      try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: contentURL, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-
-      XCTAssertNoThrow(try VMStorageOCI().reuseStandaloneDiskForStackedBaseIfPossible(manifest))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testNewTagDoesNotValidateCachedStackBeforeLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let baseDigest = Digest.hash(Data("base".utf8))
-      let overlayDigest = Digest.hash(Data("overlay".utf8))
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseDigest,
-        overlayContentDigest: overlayDigest
-      )
-      let digestName = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let tagName = RemoteName(
-        host: digestName.host,
-        namespace: digestName.namespace,
-        reference: Reference(tag: "latest")
-      )
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(digestName)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      // Hashing this directory as a disk file throws. A new tag must skip
-      // validation until after it has taken the host lock.
-      let contentURL = try ContentStore().contentURL(for: baseDigest)
-      try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: contentURL, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-      XCTAssertFalse(try storage.hasCompleteLinkedImage(tagName, digestName: digestName, manifest: manifest))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStandaloneLayerCacheIgnoresStackedCachedImages() async throws {
-    try await withTemporaryTartHome {
-      var targetManifest = try flatManifest()
-      var stackedCandidateManifest = try stackedManifest()
-      let sharedDiskSize = 2 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024
-      targetManifest.layers[1].size = sharedDiskSize
-      stackedCandidateManifest.layers[1] = targetManifest.layers[1]
-
-      let candidateName = try digestName(for: stackedCandidateManifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let candidate = try storage.create(candidateName)
-      try config().save(toURL: candidate.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: candidate.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try stackedCandidateManifest.toJSON().write(to: candidate.manifestURL)
-
-      let targetName = RemoteName(
-        host: "example.com",
-        namespace: "org/target",
-        reference: Reference(digest: try targetManifest.digest())
-      )
-      let registry = try Registry(host: targetName.host, namespace: targetName.namespace)
-
-      let layerCache = try await storage.chooseLocalLayerCache(targetName, targetManifest, registry)
-      XCTAssertNil(layerCache)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGCPrunesOnlyUnreferencedContent() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let referenced = try installContent(Data("referenced".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let unreferenced = try installContent(Data("unreferenced".utf8), into: contentStore)
-
-      let stacked = try VMStorageLocal().create("stacked")
-      try config().save(toURL: stacked.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: stacked.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: stacked.overlayURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try pinnedBaseManifest(contentDigest: referenced.digest).toJSON().write(to: stacked.manifestURL)
-
-      try VMStorageOCI().gc()
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: referenced.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: unreferenced.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGCPrunesContentWithoutOCIStorageDirectory() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let unreferenced = try installContent(Data("unreferenced".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: storage.baseURL.path))
-
-      try storage.gc()
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: unreferenced.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGCDoesNotPruneContentReferencedByInProgressManifest() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let referenced = try installContent(Data("in-progress".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-
-      // Pull and clone publish the manifest before config, NVRAM, or a
-      // writable overlay necessarily exist.
-      try pinnedBaseManifest(contentDigest: referenced.digest).toJSON().write(to: temporaryVMDir.manifestURL)
-
-      try VMStorageOCI().gc()
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: referenced.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStalePrunableDoesNotDeleteNewlyReferencedContent() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let content = try installContent(Data("new-reference".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let candidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.resolvingSymlinksInPath() == content.url.resolvingSymlinksInPath()
-      })
-
-      // Simulate a clone or pull publishing its manifest after prune built
-      // the candidate list but before deletion starts.
-      let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-      try contentStore.withPruneLock {
-        try pinnedBaseManifest(contentDigest: content.digest).toJSON().write(to: temporaryVMDir.manifestURL)
-      }
-
-      try candidate.delete()
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: content.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testVMDirectoryDeletionOfStackedOCIRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(), in: storage)
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: record) {
-        try record.delete()
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStorageDeletionOfStackedOCIRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest()
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let record = try createRecord(for: manifest, in: storage)
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: record) {
-        try storage.delete(name)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testStorageDeletionOfIncompleteManifestRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let name = RemoteName(
-        host: "example.com",
-        namespace: "org/image",
-        reference: Reference(digest: "sha256:incomplete")
-      )
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try Data("{}".utf8).write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: record) {
-        try storage.delete(name)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testVMDirectoryDeletionOfUnpublishedRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(RemoteName(
-        host: "example.com",
-        namespace: "org/image",
-        reference: Reference(digest: "sha256:unpublished")
-      ))
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: record) {
-        try record.removeFromDisk()
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testTagReplacementWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let firstManifest = try stackedManifest(baseContentDigest: "sha256:first")
-      let secondManifest = try stackedManifest(baseContentDigest: "sha256:second")
-      let firstName = try digestName(for: firstManifest)
-      let secondName = try digestName(for: secondManifest)
-      _ = try createRecord(for: firstManifest, in: storage)
-      _ = try createRecord(for: secondManifest, in: storage)
-      let tagName = RemoteName(
-        host: secondName.host,
-        namespace: secondName.namespace,
-        reference: Reference(tag: "latest")
-      )
-
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let lockHeld = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let releaseLock = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let replacementStarted = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let replacementFinished = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-
-      DispatchQueue.global().async {
-        try? contentStore.withPruneLock {
-          lockHeld.signal()
-          releaseLock.wait()
-        }
-      }
-      XCTAssertEqual(lockHeld.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-
-      DispatchQueue.global().async {
-        replacementStarted.signal()
-        try? storage.link(from: tagName, to: secondName)
-        replacementFinished.signal()
-      }
-      XCTAssertEqual(replacementStarted.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-      XCTAssertEqual(replacementFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 0.1), .timedOut)
-
-      releaseLock.signal()
-      XCTAssertEqual(replacementFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-      XCTAssertTrue(storage.linked(from: tagName, to: secondName))
-      XCTAssertFalse(storage.linked(from: tagName, to: firstName))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testGCDeletionOfStackedOCIRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(), in: storage)
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: record) {
-        try storage.gc()
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testTemporaryManifestGCWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-      try stackedManifest().toJSON().write(to: temporaryVMDir.manifestURL)
-
-      try assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(record: temporaryVMDir) {
-        try Config().gc()
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testLockedTemporaryDirectorySurvivesGarbageCollection() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let temporaryVMDir = try VMDirectory.temporary()
-      let lock = try FileLock(lockURL: temporaryVMDir.baseURL)
-      try lock.lock()
-
-      try Config().gc()
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: temporaryVMDir.baseURL.path))
-
-      try lock.unlock()
-      try Config().gc()
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: temporaryVMDir.baseURL.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testMovingStackedOCIRecordWaitsForPruneLock() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let source = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest()
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      try config().save(toURL: source.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: source.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: source.manifestURL)
-
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let lockHeld = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let releaseLock = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let moveStarted = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-      let moveFinished = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-
-      DispatchQueue.global().async {
-        try? contentStore.withPruneLock {
-          lockHeld.signal()
-          releaseLock.wait()
-        }
-      }
-      XCTAssertEqual(lockHeld.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-
-      DispatchQueue.global().async {
-        moveStarted.signal()
-        try? storage.move(name, from: source)
-        moveFinished.signal()
-      }
-      XCTAssertEqual(moveStarted.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-      XCTAssertEqual(moveFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 0.1), .timedOut)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: source.baseURL.path))
-
-      releaseLock.signal()
-      XCTAssertEqual(moveFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: source.baseURL.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(try storage.open(name).isStackedCachedImage)
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testPruningLastStackedOCIRecordReclaimsItsContent() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let baseContent = try installContent(Data("record-only-base".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let overlayContent = try installContent(Data("record-only-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let manifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: overlayContent.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try overlayContent.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let record = try storage.create(name)
-      try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-      let candidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.lastPathComponent == record.url.lastPathComponent
-      })
-      XCTAssertGreaterThanOrEqual(
-        try candidate.allocatedSizeBytes(),
-        try baseContent.url.allocatedSizeBytes() + overlayContent.url.allocatedSizeBytes()
-      )
-
-      // The record itself fits in this budget, so pruning only succeeds if it
-      // accounts for the immutable content released with the final reference.
-      try Prune.pruneSpaceBudget(
-        prunableStorages: [storage],
-        spaceBudgetBytes: UInt64(try record.allocatedSizeBytes())
-      )
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: record.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseContent.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: overlayContent.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testMalformedStackedOCIRecordDoesNotBlockPruning() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let baseContent = try installContent(Data("valid-base".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let overlayContent = try installContent(Data("valid-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-      let validRecord = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: overlayContent.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try overlayContent.url.sizeBytes())
-      ), in: storage)
-
-      let malformedRecord = try storage.create(RemoteName(
-        host: "example.com",
-        namespace: "org/image",
-        reference: Reference(digest: "sha256:malformed")
-      ))
-      try config().save(toURL: malformedRecord.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: malformedRecord.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      try Data("{".utf8).write(to: malformedRecord.manifestURL)
-
-      XCTAssertNoThrow(try storage.prunables())
-      try Prune.pruneSpaceBudget(prunableStorages: [storage], spaceBudgetBytes: 0)
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: validRecord.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: malformedRecord.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseContent.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: overlayContent.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testPruningOneStackedOCIRecordPreservesSharedContent() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let baseContent = try installContent(Data("shared-base".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let firstOverlay = try installContent(Data("first-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let secondOverlay = try installContent(Data("second-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      let firstManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: firstOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try firstOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let secondManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: secondOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try secondOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let firstRecord = try createRecord(for: firstManifest, in: storage)
-      let secondRecord = try createRecord(for: secondManifest, in: storage)
-
-      let firstCandidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.lastPathComponent == firstRecord.url.lastPathComponent
-      })
-      try firstCandidate.delete()
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseContent.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: firstOverlay.url.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: secondOverlay.url.path))
-
-      let secondCandidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.lastPathComponent == secondRecord.url.lastPathComponent
-      })
-      try secondCandidate.delete()
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseContent.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: secondOverlay.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testSpaceBudgetRecomputesSharedContentAfterOwnerDeletion() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let baseContent = try installContent(Data("shared-base".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let firstOverlay = try installContent(Data("first-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let secondOverlay = try installContent(Data("second-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      let firstManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: firstOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try firstOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let secondManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: baseContent.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: secondOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try baseContent.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try secondOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let olderRecord = try createRecord(for: firstManifest, in: storage)
-      let newerRecord = try createRecord(for: secondManifest, in: storage)
-      try olderRecord.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 1))
-      try newerRecord.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 2))
-
-      let olderCandidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.lastPathComponent == olderRecord.url.lastPathComponent
-      })
-      let budget = UInt64(try olderCandidate.allocatedSizeBytes())
-
-      // On the first pass the newer record owns the shared base and is
-      // selected for deletion, while the older record fits this budget.
-      // Recomputing must then charge the surviving record for the base and
-      // prune it too.
-      try Prune.pruneSpaceBudget(
-        prunableStorages: [storage],
-        spaceBudgetBytes: budget
-      )
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: olderRecord.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: newerRecord.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: baseContent.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: firstOverlay.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: secondOverlay.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testSpaceBudgetRecomputesBeforeDeletingAnotherCandidate() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let sharedBase = try installContent(Data(repeating: 0x41, count: 128 * 1024), into: contentStore)
-      let newestOverlay = try installContent(Data("newest-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let middleOverlay = try installContent(Data("middle-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let retainedBase = try installContent(Data(repeating: 0x42, count: 32 * 1024), into: contentStore)
-      let retainedOverlay = try installContent(Data("retained-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      let newest = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: sharedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: newestOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try sharedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try newestOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      ), in: storage)
-      let middle = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: sharedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: middleOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try sharedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try middleOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      ), in: storage)
-      let retained = try createRecord(for: stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: retainedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: retainedOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try retainedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try retainedOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      ), in: storage)
-      try newest.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 3))
-      try middle.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 2))
-      try retained.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 1))
-
-      let retainedCandidate = try XCTUnwrap(storage.prunables().first {
-        $0.url.lastPathComponent == retained.url.lastPathComponent
-      })
-
-      // Initially the newest record owns the shared base and is too large.
-      // The middle record appears small enough to retain, making the oldest
-      // unrelated record look like a second deletion candidate. After the
-      // first deletion, ownership moves to the middle record; recomputing
-      // before selecting again must delete it and preserve the unrelated one.
-      try Prune.pruneSpaceBudget(
-        prunableStorages: [storage],
-        spaceBudgetBytes: UInt64(try retainedCandidate.allocatedSizeBytes())
-      )
-
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: newest.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: middle.url.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: retained.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: sharedBase.url.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: retainedBase.url.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: retainedOverlay.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  func testAutomaticReclaimRecomputesSharedContentAfterOwnerDeletion() throws {
-    try withTemporaryTartHome {
-      let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-      let sharedBase = try installContent(Data(repeating: 0x41, count: 128 * 1024), into: contentStore)
-      let initiatorOverlay = try installContent(Data("initiator-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let ownerOverlay = try installContent(Data("owner-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let unrelatedBase = try installContent(Data("unrelated-base".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let unrelatedOverlay = try installContent(Data("unrelated-overlay".utf8), into: contentStore)
-      let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-
-      let initiatorManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: sharedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: initiatorOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try sharedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try initiatorOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let ownerManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: sharedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: ownerOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try sharedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try ownerOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let unrelatedManifest = try stackedManifest(
-        baseContentDigest: unrelatedBase.digest,
-        overlayContentDigest: unrelatedOverlay.digest,
-        baseUncompressedSize: UInt64(try unrelatedBase.url.sizeBytes()),
-        overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64(try unrelatedOverlay.url.sizeBytes())
-      )
-      let initiator = try createRecord(for: initiatorManifest, in: storage)
-      let owner = try createRecord(for: ownerManifest, in: storage)
-      let unrelated = try createRecord(for: unrelatedManifest, in: storage)
-      try initiator.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 1))
-      try owner.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 2))
-      try unrelated.url.updateAccessDate(Date(timeIntervalSince1970: 3))
-
-      let sharedBaseSize = UInt64(try sharedBase.url.allocatedSizeBytes())
-
-      // The owner is the first deletable record and is initially charged for
-      // the shared base. Deleting it cannot reclaim that base because the
-      // protected initiator still references it, so reclaim must continue.
-      try Prune.reclaimIfPossible(sharedBaseSize, initiator)
-
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: initiator.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: owner.url.path))
-      XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: unrelated.url.path))
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: sharedBase.url.path))
-    }
-  }
-
-  #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    func testPopulateStackedPushedImageCachesImmutableTopOverlay() throws {
-      if #unavailable(macOS 27.0) {
-        throw XCTSkip("DiskImageKit tests require macOS 27 or newer")
-      }
-
-      try withTemporaryTartHome {
-        let source = try diskImageSource()
-        let stacked = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-        try source.cloneAsStackedBase(to: stacked, generateMAC: false)
-
-        var manifest = try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: stacked.manifestURL))
-        let contentDigest = try Digest.hash(stacked.overlayURL)
-        var overlay = OCIManifestLayer(
-          mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType,
-          size: 1,
-          digest: "sha256:overlay-transport",
-          uncompressedSize: 1,
-          uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:overlay-chunk"
-        )
-        overlay.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = contentDigest
-        overlay.annotations?[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation] = "1"
-        manifest.layers.insert(overlay, at: manifest.layers.count - 1)
-
-        let name = try digestName(for: manifest)
-        let storage = try VMStorageOCI()
-        try storage.populate(name, from: stacked, manifest: manifest)
-
-        let cached = try storage.open(name)
-        XCTAssertTrue(cached.isStackedCachedImage)
-        XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: cached.overlayURL.path))
-        XCTAssertEqual(try OCIManifest(fromJSON: Data(contentsOf: cached.manifestURL)), manifest)
-
-        let cachedContent = try XCTUnwrap(try ContentStore().existingContentURL(for: contentDigest))
-        XCTAssertEqual(try Digest.hash(cachedContent), contentDigest)
-      }
-    }
-  #endif
-
-  private func standaloneSource(diskData: Data) throws -> VMDirectory {
-    let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-    try config().save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-    try diskData.write(to: vmDir.diskURL)
-
-    return vmDir
-  }
-
-  private func createRecord(for manifest: OCIManifest, in storage: VMStorageOCI) throws -> VMDirectory {
-    let record = try storage.create(try digestName(for: manifest))
-    try config().save(toURL: record.configURL)
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: record.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-    try manifest.toJSON().write(to: record.manifestURL)
-
-    return record
-  }
-
-  private func assertDeletionWaitsForPruneLock(
-    record: VMDirectory,
-    deletion: @escaping () throws -> Void
-  ) throws {
-    let contentStore = try ContentStore()
-    let lockHeld = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-    let releaseLock = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-    let deletionStarted = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-    let deletionFinished = DispatchSemaphore(value: 0)
-
-    DispatchQueue.global().async {
-      try? contentStore.withPruneLock {
-        lockHeld.signal()
-        releaseLock.wait()
-      }
-    }
-    XCTAssertEqual(lockHeld.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-
-    DispatchQueue.global().async {
-      deletionStarted.signal()
-      try? deletion()
-      deletionFinished.signal()
-    }
-    XCTAssertEqual(deletionStarted.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-    XCTAssertEqual(deletionFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 0.1), .timedOut)
-    XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: record.baseURL.path))
-
-    releaseLock.signal()
-    XCTAssertEqual(deletionFinished.wait(timeout: .now() + 1), .success)
-    XCTAssertFalse(FileManager.default.fileExists(atPath: record.baseURL.path))
-  }
-
-  #if canImport(DiskImageKit)
-    @available(macOS 27.0, *)
-    private func diskImageSource() throws -> VMDirectory {
-      let vmDir = try temporaryVMDirectory()
-      try config().save(toURL: vmDir.configURL)
-      XCTAssertTrue(FileManager.default.createFile(atPath: vmDir.nvramURL.path, contents: Data()))
-      _ = try DiskImage(creating: .raw(url: vmDir.diskURL, blockCount: 8))
-      try flatManifest().toJSON().write(to: vmDir.manifestURL)
-
-      return vmDir
-    }
-  #endif
-
-  private func config() -> VMConfig {
-    VMConfig(
-      platform: Linux(),
-      cpuCountMin: 2,
-      memorySizeMin: 512 * 1024 * 1024,
-      diskFormat: .raw
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func flatManifest() throws -> OCIManifest {
-    let disk = OCIManifestLayer(
-      mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-      size: 1,
-      digest: "sha256:disk-transport",
-      uncompressedSize: 1,
-      uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:disk-chunk"
-    )
-
-    return OCIManifest(
-      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-      layers: [
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:config"),
-        disk,
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: nvramMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:nvram"),
-      ]
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func stackedManifest(
-    baseContentDigest: String = "sha256:base",
-    overlayContentDigest: String = "sha256:overlay",
-    baseUncompressedSize: UInt64 = 1,
-    overlayUncompressedSize: UInt64 = 1
-  ) throws -> OCIManifest {
-    var manifest = try flatManifest()
-    manifest.annotations?[diskBlockSizeAnnotation] = "512"
-    manifest.annotations?[uncompressedDiskSizeAnnotation] = "4096"
-    manifest.layers[1].annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = baseContentDigest
-    manifest.layers[1].annotations?[uncompressedSizeAnnotation] = String(baseUncompressedSize)
-    var overlay = OCIManifestLayer(
-      mediaType: asifOverlayMediaType,
-      size: 1,
-      digest: "sha256:overlay-transport",
-      uncompressedSize: overlayUncompressedSize,
-      uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:overlay-chunk"
-    )
-    overlay.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = overlayContentDigest
-    overlay.annotations?[diskFileChunkCountAnnotation] = "1"
-    manifest.layers.insert(overlay, at: manifest.layers.count - 1)
-
-    return manifest
-  }
-
-  private func installContent(_ data: Data, contentDigest: String, into contentStore: ContentStore) throws {
-    let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: contentDigest)
-    try data.write(to: temporaryURL)
-    _ = try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: contentDigest)
-  }
-
-  private func pinnedBaseManifest(contentDigest: String) -> OCIManifest {
-    var disk = OCIManifestLayer(
-      mediaType: diskV2MediaType,
-      size: 1,
-      digest: "sha256:disk-transport",
-      uncompressedSize: 1,
-      uncompressedContentDigest: "sha256:disk-chunk"
-    )
-    disk.annotations?[diskFileContentDigestAnnotation] = contentDigest
-
-    return OCIManifest(
-      config: OCIManifestConfig(size: 1, digest: "sha256:oci-config"),
-      layers: [
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: configMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:config"),
-        disk,
-        OCIManifestLayer(mediaType: nvramMediaType, size: 1, digest: "sha256:nvram"),
-      ]
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func installContent(_ data: Data, into contentStore: ContentStore) throws -> (digest: String, url: URL) {
-    let digest = Digest.hash(data)
-    let temporaryURL = try contentStore.temporaryContentURL(for: digest)
-    try data.write(to: temporaryURL)
-
-    return (digest, try contentStore.install(temporaryURL, contentDigest: digest))
-  }
-
-  private func digestName(for manifest: OCIManifest) throws -> RemoteName {
-    RemoteName(
-      host: "example.com",
-      namespace: "org/image",
-      reference: Reference(digest: try manifest.digest())
-    )
-  }
-
-  private func withTemporaryTartHome(_ body: () throws -> Void) throws {
-    let home = try temporaryDirectory()
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", home.path, 1)
-    defer {
-      if let previousHome {
-        setenv("TART_HOME", previousHome, 1)
-      } else {
-        unsetenv("TART_HOME")
-      }
-    }
-
-    try body()
-  }
-
-  private func withTemporaryTartHome(_ body: () async throws -> Void) async throws {
-    let home = try temporaryDirectory()
-    let previousHome = ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["TART_HOME"]
-    setenv("TART_HOME", home.path, 1)
-    defer {
-      if let previousHome {
-        setenv("TART_HOME", previousHome, 1)
-      } else {
-        unsetenv("TART_HOME")
-      }
-    }
-
-    try await body()
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryVMDirectory() throws -> VMDirectory {
-    VMDirectory(baseURL: try temporaryDirectory())
-  }
-
-  private func temporaryDirectory() throws -> URL {
-    let url = FileManager.default.temporaryDirectory.appendingPathComponent(UUID().uuidString)
-    try FileManager.default.createDirectory(at: url, withIntermediateDirectories: false)
-    addTeardownBlock {
-      try? FileManager.default.removeItem(at: url)
-    }
-
-    return url
-  }
-}
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env bash
-
-# Set shell options to enable fail-fast behavior
-#
-# * -e: fail the script when an error occurs or command fails
-# * -u: fail the script when attempting to reference unset parameters
-# * -o pipefail: by default an exit status of a pipeline is that of its
-#                last command, this fails the pipe early if an error in
-#                any of its commands occurs
-#
-set -euo pipefail
-
-OUTPUT_PATH="Resources/actool"
-PLIST_PATH="$OUTPUT_PATH/Info.plist"
-
-rm -rf "${OUTPUT_PATH}"
-mkdir -p "${OUTPUT_PATH}"
-
-actool "Resources/UPW Tart.icon" \
-  --compile "${OUTPUT_PATH}" \
-  --output-format human-readable-text \
-  --notices \
-  --warnings \
-  --errors \
-  --app-icon "UPW Tart" \
-  --output-partial-info-plist $PLIST_PATH \
-  --include-all-app-icons \
-  --target-device mac \
-  --minimum-deployment-target 13.0 \
-  --platform macosx
@@ -22,32 +22,6 @@ You can also enable the debugging output to diagnose issues:
 go run cmd/main.go fio --debug
 ```

-To compare an empty Tart home with the same pull after its immutable base has
-been prewarmed, provide a standalone remote base image and a stacked image built
-from it. For example, create and push a stacked child of the public Tahoe base:
-
-```shell
-BASE_IMAGE=ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-tahoe-base:latest
-STACKED_IMAGE=ghcr.io/your-org/macos-tahoe-stacked:latest
-
-tart clone --stacked "$BASE_IMAGE" macos-tahoe-stacked
-tart push macos-tahoe-stacked "$STACKED_IMAGE"
-```
-
-Then benchmark that pair:
-
-```shell
-go run cmd/main.go stacked-oci \
-  --base-image "$BASE_IMAGE" \
-  --image "$STACKED_IMAGE"
-```
-
-The command first performs an unmeasured pull to warm registry, CDN, and
-filesystem caches. It then uses disposable `TART_HOME` directories for both
-measured scenarios. The prewarmed scenario keeps the VM created by
-`tart clone --stacked` alive while pulling the child, so the shared immutable
-base layer remains referenced and available for reuse.
-
 ## Results

 ### Mar 27, 2024
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@ package command

 import (
 	"github.com/cirruslabs/tart/benchmark/internal/command/fio"
-	"github.com/cirruslabs/tart/benchmark/internal/command/stackedoci"
 	"github.com/cirruslabs/tart/benchmark/internal/command/xcode"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
@@ -16,7 +15,6 @@ func NewCommand() *cobra.Command {

 	cmd.AddCommand(
 		fio.NewCommand(),
-		stackedoci.NewCommand(),
 		xcode.NewCommand(),
 	)

@@ -1,161 +0,0 @@
-package stackedoci
-
-import (
-	"context"
-	"fmt"
-	"os"
-	"os/exec"
-	"strings"
-	"time"
-
-	"github.com/gosuri/uitable"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	"go.uber.org/zap"
-	"go.uber.org/zap/zapio"
-)
-
-var (
-	debug        bool
-	baseImage    string
-	stackedImage string
-	insecure     bool
-	concurrency  uint
-)
-
-func NewCommand() *cobra.Command {
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "stacked-oci",
-		Short: "benchmark empty and prewarmed Tart homes for stacked OCI pulls",
-		Long: "Warm the registry once, then compare an empty Tart home with one whose " +
-			"immutable base has already been materialized by tart clone --stacked. " +
-			"Every scenario uses a disposable TART_HOME and leaves the user's Tart home untouched.",
-		RunE: run,
-	}
-
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&debug, "debug", false, "enable debug logging")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&baseImage, "base-image", "", "remote flat OCI image used as the stacked image's base")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&stackedImage, "image", "", "remote stacked OCI image to pull and clone")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&insecure, "insecure", false, "connect to the OCI registry via insecure HTTP")
-	cmd.Flags().UintVar(&concurrency, "concurrency", 4, "network concurrency passed to tart pull and clone")
-	_ = cmd.MarkFlagRequired("base-image")
-	_ = cmd.MarkFlagRequired("image")
-
-	return cmd
-}
-
-func run(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
-	if concurrency < 1 {
-		return fmt.Errorf("concurrency cannot be less than 1")
-	}
-
-	config := zap.NewProductionConfig()
-	if debug {
-		config.Level = zap.NewAtomicLevelAt(zap.DebugLevel)
-	}
-	logger, err := config.Build()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer func() { _ = logger.Sync() }()
-
-	warmupHome, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "tart-stacked-oci-warmup-*")
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer os.RemoveAll(warmupHome)
-
-	emptyHome, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "tart-stacked-oci-empty-*")
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer os.RemoveAll(emptyHome)
-
-	warmHome, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "tart-stacked-oci-warm-*")
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer os.RemoveAll(warmHome)
-
-	table := uitable.New()
-	table.AddRow("Scenario", "Operation", "Time")
-
-	// Warm registry, CDN, and filesystem caches before either measured
-	// scenario so their difference reflects Tart's local base reuse.
-	if _, err := timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, warmupHome, pullArguments(stackedImage)...); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("registry warmup failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	if err := os.RemoveAll(warmupHome); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("removing registry warmup home: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	duration, err := timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, emptyHome, pullArguments(stackedImage)...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("empty-home stacked pull failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	table.AddRow("empty", "pull stacked image", duration)
-
-	duration, err = timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, emptyHome, "clone", stackedImage, "empty-clone")
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("empty-home stacked clone failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	table.AddRow("empty", "clone stacked image", duration)
-	if err := os.RemoveAll(emptyHome); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("removing empty home: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	duration, err = timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, warmHome, cloneBaseArguments(baseImage)...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("base prewarm failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	table.AddRow("prewarmed", "clone --stacked base image", duration)
-
-	duration, err = timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, warmHome, pullArguments(stackedImage)...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("prewarmed stacked pull failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	table.AddRow("prewarmed", "pull stacked image", duration)
-
-	duration, err = timedTart(cmd.Context(), logger, warmHome, "clone", stackedImage, "warm-clone")
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("prewarmed stacked clone failed: %w", err)
-	}
-	table.AddRow("prewarmed", "clone stacked image", duration)
-
-	fmt.Println(table.String())
-	return nil
-}
-
-func pullArguments(image string) []string {
-	args := []string{"pull", "--concurrency", fmt.Sprint(concurrency)}
-	if insecure {
-		args = append(args, "--insecure")
-	}
-	return append(args, image)
-}
-
-func cloneBaseArguments(image string) []string {
-	args := []string{"clone", "--stacked", "--concurrency", fmt.Sprint(concurrency)}
-	if insecure {
-		args = append(args, "--insecure")
-	}
-	return append(args, image, "prewarmed-base")
-}
-
-func timedTart(
-	ctx context.Context,
-	logger *zap.Logger,
-	tartHome string,
-	args ...string,
-) (time.Duration, error) {
-	logger.Sugar().Debugf("TART_HOME=%s tart %s", tartHome, strings.Join(args, " "))
-	start := time.Now()
-
-	command := exec.CommandContext(ctx, "tart", args...)
-	command.Env = append(os.Environ(), "TART_HOME="+tartHome)
-	loggerWriter := &zapio.Writer{Log: logger, Level: zap.DebugLevel}
-	command.Stdout = loggerWriter
-	command.Stderr = loggerWriter
-
-	err := command.Run()
-	return time.Since(start).Round(time.Millisecond), err
-}
@@ -11,12 +11,6 @@ categories:

 # Changing Tart License

-!!! note "Current license"
-    This post describes a historical license change announced on February 11, 2023.
-    As of June 5, 2026, Tart is maintained by OpenAI and licensed under
-    [FSL-1.1-ALv2](https://github.com/openai/tart/blob/main/LICENSE).
-    The usage limits, paid tiers, pricing, support commitments, and contact details described below no longer apply.
-
 **TLDR:** We are transitioning Tart's licensing from AGPL-3.0 to [Fair Source 100](https://fair.io/). This change will
 permit unlimited installations on personal computers, but organizations that exceed a certain number of server
 installations utilizing 100 CPU cores will be required to obtain a paid license.
@@ -26,7 +20,7 @@ installations utilizing 100 CPU cores will be required to obtain a paid license.
 Exactly a year ago on February 11th 2022 we started working on Tart – a tiny CLI to run macOS virtual machines on Apple Silicon.
 Three months later we successfully started using Tart in our own production system and decided to share Tart with everyone.

-<img src="https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/TartSocial.png"/>
+<img src="https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/TartSocial.png"/>

 The goal was to establish a community of users and contributors to transform Tart from a small CLI to a robust tool
 for various scenarios. **Unfortunately, we were not successful in attracting a significant number of contributors.**
@@ -66,9 +60,13 @@ device without a physical display connected. For example, a Mac Mini with a HDMI
 but a Mac Mini on a desk with a connected physical display is considered a personal computer. **Usage on personal computers
 and before reaching the 100 CPU cores limit is royalty-free and does not have the viral properties of AGPL.**

-When an organization surpasses the 100 CPU cores limit, they will be required to obtain a Gold Tier License,
-which costs \$12,000 per year. Upon reaching a limit of 500 CPU cores, a Platinum Tier License
-(\$36,000 per year) will be required, and for organizations that exceed 3000 CPU cores, a custom Diamond Tier License
+!!! note "Pricing update"
+    This post announced Tart licensing in February 2023 and originally listed monthly prices.
+    Pricing has since changed to yearly billing. See [Licensing and Support](../../licensing.md#license-tiers) for the latest terms.
+
+When an organization surpasses the 100 CPU cores limit, they will be required to obtain a [Gold Tier License](../../licensing.md#license-tiers),
+which costs \$12,000 per year. Upon reaching a limit of 500 CPU cores, a [Platinum Tier License](../../licensing.md#license-tiers)
+(\$36,000 per year) will be required, and for organizations that exceed 3000 CPU cores, a custom [Diamond Tier License](../../licensing.md#license-tiers)
 (\$12 per core per year) will be necessary. **All paid license tiers will include priority feature development and SLAs on support with urgent issues.**

 ## Have we considered alternatives?
@@ -80,5 +78,6 @@ this approach is not addressing concerns related to the viral nature of AGPL for
 we concluded that transitioning to a source-available model with a mandatory paid licensing is fair, as the licensing fees
 are relatively insignificant for companies that reach a significant level of usage.

+If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to reach out to [licensing@cirruslabs.org](mailto:licensing@cirruslabs.org).
 If the new licensing model is not suitable for your organization, you are welcome to continue using the AGPL version of Tart,
 but please ensure it is not used in a non-AGPL environment.
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ in “worker” mode on macOS hosts. Orchard controller is using extremely fast

 ## Conclusion

-Please give [Orchard](https://github.com/openai/orchard) a try! To run it locally in development mode on any Apple Silicon device
+Please give [Orchard](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard) a try! To run it locally in development mode on any Apple Silicon device
 please run the following command:

 ```bash
@@ -86,9 +86,9 @@ brew install cirruslabs/cli/orchard
 orchard dev
 ```

-This will launch a development cluster with a single worker on your machine. Refer to [Orchard documentation](https://github.com/openai/orchard#creating-virtual-machines)
+This will launch a development cluster with a single worker on your machine. Refer to [Orchard documentation](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard#creating-virtual-machines)
 on how to create your first virtual machine and access it.

 In a [separate blog post](2023-04-28-orchard-ssh-over-grpc.md)
 we’ll cover how Orchard implements seamless SSH access over a gRPC connection. Stay tuned and please don’t hesitate to
-[open an issue](https://github.com/openai/orchard/issues)!
+[reach out](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard/discussions/landing)! 
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ categories:

 # SSH over gRPC or how Orchard simplifies accessing VMs in private networks

-We started developing [Orchard](https://github.com/openai/orchard), an orchestrator for [Tart](https://tart.run/), with the requirement that it should allow users to access virtual machines running on worker nodes in private networks that users might not have access to.
+We started developing [Orchard](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard), an orchestrator for [Tart](https://tart.run/), with the requirement that it should allow users to access virtual machines running on worker nodes in private networks that users might not have access to.

 At the same time, we wanted to enable users to access VMs on these remote workers just as easily as they’d access network services on their local Tart VMs.

@@ -102,14 +102,14 @@ Overall, the technology described in this article somewhat resembles what [we pr

 We really hope this feature will be useful for many, just as the Cirrus Terminal, and that it will remove the pain of scaling Tart beyond a single machine.

-You can give [Orchard](https://github.com/openai/orchard) a try by running it locally in development mode on any Apple Silicon device:
+You can give [Orchard](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard) a try by running it locally in development mode on any Apple Silicon device:

 ```bash
 brew install cirruslabs/cli/orchard
 orchard dev
 ```

-This will launch a development cluster with a single worker on your machine. Refer to [Orchard documentation](https://github.com/openai/orchard#creating-virtual-machines)
+This will launch a development cluster with a single worker on your machine. Refer to [Orchard documentation](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard#creating-virtual-machines)
 on how to create your first virtual machine and access it.

-Stay tuned and don’t hesitate to send us your feedback either [on GitHub](https://github.com/openai/orchard) or [Twitter](https://twitter.com/cirrus_labs)!
+Stay tuned and don’t hesitate to send us your feedback either [on GitHub](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard) or [Twitter](https://twitter.com/cirrus_labs)!
@@ -19,21 +19,25 @@ Today we'd like to share some news and updates around the Tart ecosystem since t

 In the last 7 months Tart community almost tripled and growth is continuing to accelerate. Tart just crossed 25,000 installations,
 dozens of companies that we know of are using Tart in their daily workflows. If your company is not in the list please consider
-[joining](https://github.com/openai/tart/blob/main/Resources/Users/HowToAddYourself.md)!
+[joining](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/blob/main/Resources/Users/HowToAddYourself.md)!

 <div class="grid cards" markdown>

- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Krisp.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Mullvad.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/ahrefs.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Suran.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Symflower.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Transloadit.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/PITSGlobalDataRecoveryServices.png){ height="65" }
- ![](https://github.com/openai/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Uphold.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Krisp.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Mullvad.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/ahrefs.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Suran.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Symflower.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Transloadit.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/PITSGlobalDataRecoveryServices.png){ height="65" }
+- ![](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/raw/main/Resources/Users/Uphold.png){ height="65" }

 </div>

+We are also very pleased by how the community responded to [the license change](2023-02-11-changing-tart-license.md).
+We now have a number of companies running Tart at scale under the new license. Revenue from the licensing allowed us to
+allocate time to continue improving Tart which brings us to the section below.
+
 ## Recent updates and what's changing in Tart 2.0.0

 In the last 7 months we've had 12 feature releases that brought a lot of features requested by the community. Here are just
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+---
+draft: false
+date: 2023-10-06
+search:
+  exclude: true
+authors:
+  - fkorotkov
+categories:
+  - announcement
+---
+
+# Tart is now available on AWS Marketplace
+
+Announcing [official AMIs for EC2 Mac Instances](https://aws.amazon.com/marketplace/pp/prodview-qczco34wlkdws)
+with preconfigured Tart installation that is optimized to work within AWS infrastructure.
+
+EC2 Mac Instances is a gem of engineering powered by AWS Nitro devices. Just imagine there is a physical Mac Mini with
+a plugged in Nitro device that can push the physical power button!
+
+![EC2 M2 Pro](../images/ec2-mac2-m2pro.png)
+
+This clever synergy between Apple Hardware and Nitro System allows seamless integration with VPC networking and booting macOS from an EBS volume.
+
+In this blog post we’ll see how a virtualization solution like Tart can compliment and elevate experience with EC2 Mac Instances.
+
+<!-- more -->
+
+Let’s start from the basics, what EC2 Mac Instances allow to do compared to physical Mac Minis seating in offices of
+many companies around the world?
+
+First and foremost, EC2 Mac Instances sit inside AWS data centers and can leverage all the goodies of VPC networking
+within your company's existing infrastructure. No need to connect your Macs in the office through a VPN and deal
+with networking and security.
+
+Additionally, EC2 Mac Instances are booting from EBS volumes which means it is possible to always have reproducible instances
+and apply all the best practices of Infrastructure-as-Code. Managing a fleet of physical Macs is a pain and it's very hard
+to make them configured in a reproducible and stable way. With booting from identical EBS volumes your team is always sure
+about the identical initial state of the fleet.
+
+## Compromises of EC2 Mac Instances
+
+The flexibility of EBS volumes for macOS comes with some compromises that virtualization solutions like Tart can help with.
+The initial boot from an EBS volume takes some time and not instant. macOS itself is pretty heavy and a Nitro device needs
+to download tens of gigabytes that macOS requires in order to boot. This means that **resetting a EC2 Mac Instance to a clean state
+is not instant and usually takes a couple of minutes** when you can’t utilize the precious resources for your workloads.
+
+It is much easier to tailor such EBS volumes with tools like Packer but there is still a **friction to test newly created EBS volumes**
+since one needs to start and run a EC2 Mac Instance and it’s not possible to test things locally. Similarly it is even harder
+to test beta versions of macOS that require manual interaction with a running instance.
+
+## Solution
+
+Tart can help with all the compromises! Tart virtual machines (VMs) have nearly native performance thanks to utilizing
+native `Virtualization.Framework` that was developed along the first Apple Silicon chip. **Tart VMs can be copied/disposed
+instantly and booting a fresh Tart VM takes only several seconds**. It is also possible to run two different Tart VMs in parallel
+that can have completely different versions of macOS and packages. For example, it is possible to have the latest stable macOS
+with the release version of Xcode along with the next version of macOS with the latest beta of Xcode.
+
+Creation of Tart VMs can be automated with [a Packer plugin](https://github.com/cirruslabs/packer-plugin-tart) the same way as
+creation of EC2 AMIs with one caveat that **Tart Packer Plugin works locally so you can test the same virtual machine locally
+as you would run it in the cloud**.
+
+Lightweight nature of Tart VMs with a focus on an easy-to-integrate Tart CLI compliments any macOS automation and helps to reduce
+the feedback cycle and improves reproducibility of macOS environments even further.
+
+## Conclusion
+
+We are excited to bring [official AMIs that include Tart installation optimized to work within AWS](https://aws.amazon.com/marketplace/pp/prodview-qczco34wlkdws).
+In the coming weeks when macOS Sonoma will become available on AWS we’ll release another update specifically targeting EC2 Mac Instances. 
+This update will simplify access to local SSDs of Mac Instances that are slightly faster than EBS volumes. Stay tuned and don’t hesitate
+to ask any [questions](https://tart.run/licensing/).
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ categories:

 # Jumping through the hoops: SSH jump host functionality in Orchard

-Almost a year ago, when we started building [Orchard](https://github.com/openai/orchard), an orchestration system for Tart, we quickly realized that most worker machines will be in a private network, and that VMs will be only reachable from the worker machines themselves. Thus, one of our goals became to simplify accessing the compute resources in a cluster through a centralized controller host.
+Almost a year ago, when we started building [Orchard](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard), an orchestration system for Tart, we quickly realized that most worker machines will be in a private network, and that VMs will be only reachable from the worker machines themselves. Thus, one of our goals became to simplify accessing the compute resources in a cluster through a centralized controller host.

 This effort resulted in commands like `orchard port-forward` and `orchard ssh`, which were later improved to support connecting not just to the VMs, but to the worker machines themselves.

@@ -55,6 +55,8 @@ Once running, you can connect to any VM in the cluster using the `ssh -J <servic

 ## Future plans

+First of all, we’d like to thank our paid clients, without which this feature wouldn’t be possible. [Become one now](../../licensing.md) and get the benefit of higher Tart VMs and Orchard workers allowances and making sure that the roadmap for Tart and Orchard is aligned with your company's needs.
+
 In the near future we plan to implement a mechanism similar to `authorized_keys` file that will allow attaching public SSH keys to the Orchard controller’s service accounts, and thus avoid the need to type the passwords.

-Stay tuned and don’t hesitate to send us your feedback on [GitHub](https://github.com/openai/orchard) and [Twitter](https://x.com/cirrus_labs)!
+Stay tuned and don’t hesitate to send us your feedback on [GitHub](https://github.com/cirruslabs/orchard) and [Twitter](https://x.com/cirrus_labs)!
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@ categories:

 # Bridging the gaps with the Tart Guest Agent

-We're introducing a new improvement for the Tart usability experience: a [Tart Guest Agent](https://github.com/openai/tart-guest-agent).
+We're introducing a new improvement for the Tart usability experience: a [Tart Guest Agent](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart-guest-agent).

-This agent provides automatic disk resizing, seamless clipboard sharing for macOS guests (a [long-awaited](https://github.com/openai/tart/issues/14) feature), and the ability to run commands, without SSH and networking, using the new `tart exec` command.
+This agent provides automatic disk resizing, seamless clipboard sharing for macOS guests (a [long-awaited](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/issues/14) feature), and the ability to run commands, without SSH and networking, using the new `tart exec` command.

 As of recently, we include this agent in all non-vanilla Cirrus Labs images, so you likely won't need to do anything to benefit from these usability improvements.

@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ Using gRPC simplifies `tart exec` implementation because of code generation and

 Thanks to [gRPC Swift](https://github.com/grpc/grpc-swift), which is built on top of [SwiftNIO](https://github.com/apple/swift-nio), we get [`async/await`](https://docs.swift.org/swift-book/documentation/the-swift-programming-language/concurrency/) support for free, further simplifying the `tart exec` logic.

-As for the Tart Guest Agent, the final result is a Golang binary that [can be customized](https://github.com/openai/tart-guest-agent?tab=readme-ov-file#guest-agent-for-tart-vms) depending on the execution context:
+As for the Tart Guest Agent, the final result is a Golang binary that [can be customized](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart-guest-agent?tab=readme-ov-file#guest-agent-for-tart-vms) depending on the execution context:

 * launchd global daemon — runs as a privileged user (`root`), has no clipboard access
    * `--resize-disk` — resizes the disk when there's a free space at the end of a disk (assuming that one previously ran `tart set --disk-size`)
@@ -59,10 +59,14 @@ We’ve also introduced `--run-daemon` (which implies `--resize-disk`) and `--ru

 ## Future plans

+First, we'd like to thank our paid clients, without whom this feature wouldn't have been possible.
+
+[Become one now](../../licensing.md) and enjoy higher allowances for Tart VMs and Orchard workers—while helping ensure that our roadmap aligns with your company's needs.
+
 In the near future we plan to implement:

 * Linux support — to provide seamless experience for Linux guests too
 * a new `tart ip` resolver — to provide a more robust IP retrieval facility for Linux guests, which often struggle to populate the host's ARP table with their network activity
 * `tart cp` command — to copy files from/to guest VMs

-Stay tuned, and feel free to send us feedback on [GitHub](https://github.com/openai/tart) and [Twitter](https://x.com/cirrus_labs)!
+Stay tuned, and feel free to send us feedback on [GitHub](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart) and [Twitter](https://x.com/cirrus_labs)!
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+draft: false
+date: 2025-10-27
+search:
+  exclude: true
+authors:
+  - fkorotkov
+categories:
+  - announcement
+---
+
+# Press Release: Cirrus Labs Successfully Enforces Its Fair Source License
+
+**New York City, NY – October 27th, 2025 – Cirrus Labs, Inc.**, a leading provider of platforms for digital transformation, today announced that it has reached a settlement agreement regarding a violation of its Fair Source License.
+
+<!-- more -->
+
+Cirrus Labs makes its Tart Virtualization Toolset, a leading virtualization toolset to build, run and manage macOS and Linux virtual machines (VMs) on Apple Silicon,
+freely available on GitHub under the Fair Source License, a source-available license. Tart is used by tens of thousands of engineers at no charge within its generous free‑use limits.
+Many large enterprises that need to exceed those limits support continued development through paid licenses. Cirrus Labs also uses Tart to power [Cirrus Runners](https://cirrus-runners.app/)
+— a drop‑in replacement for macOS and Linux runners for GitHub Actions — offered at a fixed monthly price for unlimited usage.
+
+Cirrus Labs discovered that, **despite a prior licensing request that was declined due to a conflict of interest**, another company used Tart in a manner that exceeded the license’s free‑use limits,
+in order to create a competing product.
+
+After several months of negotiations, the matter was settled and a settlement payment to Cirrus Labs was agreed upon.
+
+!!! quote "Comment by Fedor Korotkov, CEO of Cirrus Labs"
+    
+    As a company we embrace healthy competition that ultimately benefits the end user. Most of our users have no trouble complying with our license,
+    and even when they need something more than our free use limits, we can almost always grant them a license that fits their needs. **This was an exceptional case.**
+    We are pleased to have reached this settlement, which validates our source-available licensing strategy and reinforces our commitment to protecting our company and serving our community.
+
+Cirrus Labs was represented in this matter by [Jordan Raphael](https://byronraphael.com/attorneys/jordan-raphael/) of Byron Raphael LLP, a boutique intellectual property law firm,
+and [Heather Meeker](https://www.techlawpartners.com/heather), a well-known specialist in open source and source available licensing.
+
+The specific financial terms of the settlement and the identity of the counterparty remain confidential.
+
+**About Cirrus Labs:** Cirrus Labs, Inc. is a bootstrapped developer-infrastructure company founded in 2017. Our offerings among others include Tart and Cirrus Runners,
+and our software is used by teams at category-leading companies including Atlassian, Figma, Zendesk, Sentry and many more.
+
+Learn more at [https://tart.run/](https://tart.run/) and [https://cirrus-runners.app/](https://cirrus-runners.app/).
+
+**Contact:** [hello@cirruslabs.org](mailto:hello@cirruslabs.org)
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ Remote images are pulled into `~/.tart/cache/OCIs/`.
 ## Nested virtualization support?

 Tart is limited by functionality of Apple's `Virtualization.Framework`. At the moment `Virtualization.Framework`
-supports nested virtualization only on M3 or M4 chips running macOS 15 (Sequoia) or later and [only for Linux VMs](https://github.com/openai/tart/issues/1231#issuecomment-4410915463). By default, it is disabled, but can be enabled by passing the `--nested` flag to `tart run`.
+supports nested virtualization only on M3 or M4 chips running macOS 15 (Sequoia) or later. By default, it is disabled, but can be enabled by passing the `--nested` flag to `tart run`.

 ## Connecting to a service running on host

@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ netstat -nr | awk '/default/{print $2; exit}'
 ```

 Note: that accessing host is only possible with the default NAT network. If you are running your virtual machines with
-[Softnet](https://github.com/openai/softnet) (via `tart run --net-softnet <VM NAME>)`, then the network isolation
+[Softnet](https://github.com/cirruslabs/softnet) (via `tart run --net-softnet <VM NAME>)`, then the network isolation
 is stricter and it's not possible to access the host.

 ## Avoiding the "Local Network" permission pop-up
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ sudo defaults write /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration/com.apple.vmnet.pli

 By default, the built-in macOS DHCP server allocates IP-addresses to the VMs for the duration of 86,400 seconds (one day), which may easily cause DHCP exhaustion if you run more than ~253 VMs per day, or in other words, more than one VM every ~6 minutes.

-This issue is worked around automatically [when using Softnet](https://github.com/openai/softnet), however, if you don't use or can't use it, the following command will reduce the lease time from the default 86,400 seconds (one day) to 600 seconds (10 minutes):
+This issue is worked around automatically [when using Softnet](http://github.com/cirruslabs/softnet), however, if you don't use or can't use it, the following command will reduce the lease time from the default 86,400 seconds (one day) to 600 seconds (10 minutes):

 ```shell
 sudo defaults write /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration/com.apple.InternetSharing.default.plist bootpd -dict DHCPLeaseTimeSecs -int 600
@@ -204,7 +204,7 @@ Alternatively, you can pass the credentials via the environment variables, see [
 ## How is Tart different from Anka?

 Under the hood Tart is using the same technology as Anka 3.0 so there should be no real difference in performance
-or features supported. If there is some feature missing please don't hesitate to [create a feature request](https://github.com/openai/tart/issues).
+or features supported. If there is some feature missing please don't hesitate to [create a feature request](https://github.com/cirruslabs/tart/issues).

 Instead of Anka Registry, Tart can work with any OCI-compatible container registry. This provides a much more consistent
 and scalable experience for distributing virtual machines.
@@ -231,28 +231,6 @@ export TART_NO_AUTO_PRUNE=
 TART_NO_AUTO_PRUNE= tart pull ...
 ```

-## Stacked disk images
-
-On macOS 27 or newer, `tart clone --stacked` can create a VM from a remote,
-standalone macOS OCI image whose writes are stored in a private ASIF overlay while
-its source disk remains a shared read-only base:
-
-```shell
-tart clone --stacked ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-tahoe-base:latest macos-build
-```
-
-Running and pushing `macos-build` preserves that disk relationship. Pulling
-another image from the same lineage only downloads immutable disk files that
-are not already present in Tart's cache. For a stopped stacked VM,
-`tart set --disk-size` grows its private writable overlay without changing the
-base; a subsequent push records the new guest-visible disk size.
-
-`tart pull` can cache a stacked image without assembling its disk. Clone, run,
-import, and export require a Tart build with DiskImageKit support and macOS 27
-or newer. Existing standalone raw and ASIF images continue to work on older
-hosts. Keep published lineages shallow when possible: every additional parent
-overlay adds another ASIF file to validate and assemble at run time.
-
 ## Disk resizing

 Disk resizing works on most cloud-ready Linux distributions out-of-the box (e.g. Ubuntu Cloud Images have the `cloud-initramfs-growroot` package installed that runs on boot) and on the rest of the distributions by running the `growpart` or `resize2fs` commands.
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ description: Tool for running isolated tasks reproducibly in any environment wit

 # Cirrus CLI

-Tart itself is only responsible for managing virtual machines, but Cirrus Labs built Tart support into a tool called
-[Cirrus CLI](https://github.com/cirruslabs/cirrus-cli), a command line tool with
+Tart itself is only responsible for managing virtual machines, but we've built Tart support into a tool called Cirrus CLI
+also developed by Cirrus Labs. [Cirrus CLI](https://github.com/cirruslabs/cirrus-cli) is a command line tool with
 one configuration format to execute common CI steps (run a script, cache a folder, etc.) locally or in any CI system.
 We built Cirrus CLI to solve "But it works on my machine!" problem.

@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ cirrus run
 [Cirrus CI](https://cirrus-ci.org/) already leverages Tart to power its macOS cloud infrastructure. The `.cirrus.yml`
 config from above will just work in Cirrus CI and your tasks will be executed inside Tart VMs in our cloud.

-**Note:** Cirrus CI only allows [images managed and regularly updated by Cirrus Labs](https://github.com/orgs/cirruslabs/packages?tab=packages&q=macos).
+**Note:** Cirrus CI only allows [images managed and regularly updated by us](https://github.com/orgs/cirruslabs/packages?tab=packages&q=macos).

 ## Retrieving artifacts from within Tart VMs

--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More
Author	SHA1	Message	Date
Nikolay Edigaryev	ae9520430b	Make sure other resources are signed too	2026-03-16 19:16:00 +01:00
Nikolay Edigaryev	cfd685e137	Add code signature	2026-03-16 19:06:23 +01:00
Nikolay Edigaryev	40eaff0e82	Only release	2026-03-16 18:49:23 +01:00
Nikolay Edigaryev	f77dd9f6e5	Sign the whole tart.app	2026-03-16 18:46:16 +01:00
Nikolay Edigaryev	f371ebe980	Resources/Info.plist: use "com.github.cirruslabs.tart" bundle identifier	2026-03-16 18:37:22 +01:00